The First Luso–Malabarese War was the first armed conflict fought by the Portuguese Empire in Asia, and the first of nine against the Zamorin of Calicut, then the preeminent power on the Malabar Coast, in India.Aniruddha Ray :Towns and Cities of Medieval India: A Brief Survey, Taylor & Francis, 2016, p. 359. The conflict erupted in 1500 over trade. Though himself a Hindu, the Zamorin was closely associated with and heavily dependent on the influential Muslim merchant community of Calicut. Wary of the threat that the Portuguese posed to their interests, they interfered with and disrupted Portuguese attempts to trade in India or negotiate with the Zamorin. Hostilities continued for thirteen years until the ruling Zamorin was assassinated and his successor signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese governor of India Afonso de Albuquerque. The conflict is also noteworthy as the first war fought by Europeans on the subcontinent ever since the defeat of the Seleucids and the times of Menander The Great from over 1800 years prior.
Some of the most famous Portuguese personalities of the Age of Discovery participated in the war, such as Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, Dom Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque, while the actions of some commanders like the defense of Cochin by Duarte Pacheco Pereira are considered among the greatest exploits in the military history of Portugal. It involved a significant part of Portuguese society whether directly or indirectly, many joining the service of King Manuel in the armadas attracted by the prospects of wealth and glory despite the very high risks due to disease, enemy action or shipwrecks. "It was a supreme national effort that called on all the available resources of manpower, shipbuilding, material provision and strategic vision to exploit a window of opportunity before Spain could react. In the process, the Portuguese took both Europe and the peoples of the Indies by complete surprise."Crowley, 2015, p. 101.
By simply sailing to India around Africa, the Portuguese incurred in the hostility of the entire Muslim community involved in the east–west trade, as well as the Republic of Venice whose commercial interests were threatened.Diffie, 1977, p. 196. Although the Nair armies of the Zamorin were large, they proved inflexible compared to the smaller but heavily armed forces of the Portuguese, while his actions were almost invariably spied upon and leaked to the Portuguese by their Malabarese allies who resented the rule of Calicut.Crowley, 2015, p. 149. The Portuguese also gathered the support of the Saint Thomas Christians.Sanjay Subrahmanyam: The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 218. The Trimumpara raja of Cochin was a rebellious tributary vassal of Calicut and the first ruler in India to seek an alliance with Portugal. He emerged from the conflict as an alternative power to the Zamorin on the Malabar Coast as a result of his association with the Europeans.
The Zamorin sought to hire experienced Arab privateers and took in European defectors or specialists, though this ultimately proved insufficient to counteract the Portuguese. Dissenting voices favouring terms with the Portuguese eventually rose within Calicut itself. Losses were heavy for Calicut, whether in terms of lives, resources or prestige: several vassals defected, a large number of merchants quit the city to trade elsewhere, and ultimately the ruling Zamorin was himself assassinated. His successor negotiated a peace treaty and a fortress was built at Calicut.
Background
After decades of exploratory efforts around the coasts of Africa, on 17 May 1498 Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in India.
Calicut was at this time the most important commercial city in the Malabar Coast. Arabs had established trade there about 600 years before and the city contained a great number of Muslim merchants from Egypt and Arabia or born locally, called Mappilas. They imported great quantities of valuable goods from the Middle-East through the Red Sea on large fleets and took back spices and local products, mostly pepper. These were bought at Alexandria in Egypt by Venetians, and redistributed to Europe. As a result of this trade, they were wealthy and highly influential in Calicut.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 48.
Pleased by the arrival of a new set of foreigners that would increase the trade in his city, the Zamorin offered to provide the Portuguese with as much cargo as they desired. Wary of Portuguese competition however, the powerful Muslim merchant community sought by every means to sabotage or interfere with the Portuguese and get them ejected from the country."The Moorish traders of Calicut having heard of the message sent from the King to the Portuguese, offering to supply them with the principal product of that country, and fearing that if they were once admitted to trade here they would limit themselves to that port, but would extend their commerce to other Indian marts, resolved to adopt every means to get them turned out of the country. This decision they then communicated to other Moorish merchants throughout the coasts of India; and with the view of at once carrying their purpose into effect they placed themselves in communication with the King's chief factor, who was the principal overseer of his exchequer, and with the King's gazil, or minister of justice." in Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 49-50. They warned the Zamorin against any treaties with the newcomers and slandered them, while key ministers of the raja were bribed.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 50. A merchant who had converted to Islam personally informed Gama aboard his flagship of the plot. Portuguese envoys to the Zamorin were subjected to constant delays but allowed to open a warehouse and trade in the city. The agent sent ashore by Gama to acquire spices were only supplied poor-quality products but he pretended not to notice and always paid great sums for the merchandise. The chief-minister of Zamorin having been bribed, he suggested that the Portuguese were spies and should therefore all be captured and executed.
Gama eventually managed to speak personally to the Zamorin and deliver a letter from King Manuel, though he was later detained for a few days and kept under watch by his chief of the royal guard. The Zamorin ordered the execution of the Portuguese along with the confiscation of their goods but then changed his mind and allowed Gama to depart with an apology.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 51-59.
Despite numerous shortcomings, the expedition of Vasco da Gama was a resounding success. He was afforded a hero's welcome upon his return and the achievement was celebrated across Portugal with public thanksgivings, feasts and entertainments.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 65-66. Among other things, he delivered to King Manuel a letter from the Zamorin which read:
Casus Belli
King Manuel decided to follow up with a new and larger expedition and the following year Pedro Álvares Cabral was entrusted by King Manuel with a powerful fleet of 13 ships to overawe the Muslims who were sure to put up opposition, and rich gifts to impress the Zamorin. It was manned by 1200 carefully selected men, including some of the boldest and most famous navigators of the generation, such as Bartolomeu Dias and Nicolau Coelho. Cabral was presented with a royal banner blessed by the Bishop of Viseu and he departed on 9 March 1500. His instructions were filled with commercial information, and little to the effect of hostility towards the Zamorin, who was believed to be a Christian and therefore one whom an alliance ought to be forged with.Diffie, 1977, p. 221.
Cabral made a landfall in South America en route to India. The fleet arrived at Calicut with only six ships, four having been lost rounding the Cape of Good Hope, while two returned to Portugal and one strayed to the Red Sea due to the ineptitude of the pilot.E. Rehatsek: "Historical Sketch of Portuguese India" in The Calcutte Review, volume 73, 1881, p. 41. Cabral reached Calicut on 30 August. The Zamorin that had welcomed Gama had died, and his nephew had since succeeded him.Crowley, 2015, p. 107. Cabral landed with thirty men to meet the Zamorin on the beach and costly presents were gifted to the raja. After two and a half months of negotiations, a treaty was signed, the terms engraved on metal plates and a trading post opened in the city, placed under the direction of the experienced agent Aires Correia with 70 Europeans.Crowley, 2015, pp. 108-109Whiteway, 1995, p. 85.
Calicut Massacre
On the request of the Zamorin, Cabral had a passing merchant ship from the neighbouring Kingdom of Cochin carrying a valuable cargo of elephants seized.Crowley, 2015, p. 109. While the Zamorin was willing to have the Portuguese as customers, the more numerous Arab community of merchants sought to thwart their supply of pepper and spices.Diffie, 1977, p. 220. They sabotaged and interfered with the supply and after three months the Portuguese could load no more than two carracks, while Muslim vessels were secretly departing with full cargoes.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 69-70. Cabral was informed of this by Coje Bequi, who championed one of the rival factions of merchants at Calicut and had befriended Aires Correia.Gaspar Correia: Lendas da Índia, 1858, book I, tome I, chapter VIII, p. 190. After Cabral complained to the Zamorin, the raja allowed him to arrest any ship trying to evade customs and confiscate their cargo, however when Cabral had a ship arrested a riot sparked in the city.Crowley, 2015, pp. 109-110. The feitoria in the city was attacked by an armed mob and about 50 Portuguese were killed, among them the agent Aires Correia, a number of Franciscan friars and Pero Vaz de Caminha, while the rest managed to escape to the fleet, most of them wounded. Some were sheltered at the home of Coje Bequi.The Three Voyages of Vasco Da Gama, and His Viceroyalty p. 360.
Course of hostilities
After the massacre at the feitoria, Cabral demanded to hear from the Zamorin, but no answer was ever provided by the ruler. After a day his silence was interpreted as hostile.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 70.
Bombardment of Calicut Ten merchant ships in the harbour were seized and their crews were killed. The following morning Calicut was subjected to a fierce bombardment that continued for two days. A few small cannon onshore replied, but Portuguese firepower was overwhelming.Roger Crowley: Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire, Faber & Faber, 2015, p. 111. Shots tore into the city and demolished several buildings, including some of the Zamorin, who left Calicut. The death toll was estimated at over 500 or 600 persons, including one of the Zamorin's close notables and the bombardment was only ceased due to the damage that the recoil from the cannon was causing to the ships.R. S. Whiteway: Rise of Portuguese Power in India, Asian Educational Services, 1995, p. 87.
The position of the Portuguese was now serious, as the season to sail had nearly passed, Cabral had acquired almost no pepper at all, and they were at war with Calicut and without a friendly port in the region.
Alliances with Cochin and Cannanore
The Portuguese were informed by Gaspar da Gama that the Raja of Cochin was an unwilling vassal of Calicut seeking independence and would probably welcome an alliance. After the bombardment of Calicut therefore, Cabral directed his fleet to Cochin further south, and on the way there he had Pandarane attacked and two more trade ships captured.