On Horsemanship is the English title usually given to , peri hippikēs, one of the two treatises on horsemanship by the Athenian historian and soldier Xenophon (c. 430–354 BC). Other common titles for this work are De equis alendis and The Art of Horsemanship. The other work by Xenophon on horsemanship is , hipparchikos, usually known as Hipparchicus, or The cavalry commander. The title De re equestri may refer to either of the two.
On horsemanship deals with the selection, care and training of horses in general. Military training and the duties of the cavalry commander are dealt with in the Hipparchicus.
History Written in about 355 BC, the treatises of Xenophon were considered the earliest extant works on horsemanship in any literature until the publication by Bedřich Hrozný in 1931 of a Hittite text, that by Kikkuli of the Mitanni Kingdom, which dates from about 1360 BC. A treatise on horsemanship by Pliny the Elder is believed lost, as was that by Simon of Athens, which is twice mentioned by Xenophon in On Horsemanship. Some fragments of Simon's treatise survive, however; they were published by Ruehl in 1912.
Early editions The first printed edition of On Horsemanship is that in the complete edition of Xenophon of 1516 from the Giunti press: Begin. Ταδε ̓ενεστιν ̓εν τͅηδε τͅη βιβλͅω· Ξενοφωντος Κυρου Παιδειας βιβλια ηʹ ... Hæc in hoc libro continentur. X. Cyri pedias libri VIII. Anabaseos libri VII.; ... apomnemoneumaton; ... venatoria; ... de re equestri; ... de equis alendis; lacedæmonum resp.; ... atheniensium resp.; ... œconomica; ... hieron.; ... symposium; ... de græcorum gestis libri VII. [With dedication by E. Boninus] (editio princeps) Florentiæ: In ædibus P. Juntæ, 1516
The earliest printing in Greek in England may be: Ξ. Λογος περι Ἱππικης. Ἱππαρχικος. Κυνηγετικος. Accessere veterum testimonia de X. (Edited by H. Aldrich.)Ἐκ Θεατρου ἐν Ὀξονιᾳ, ᾳχζγ [Oxford: Clarendon Press 1693]
Translations
Richard Berenger (1771). The history and art of horsemanship. London: T. Davies and T. Cadell, pages 219–234. Maurice Ashley Cooper et al. (1832). The whole works of Xenophon. London: Jones & Co., pages 717–728. Morris H. Morgan (1893). The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon. Boston: Little, Brown, pages 13–68.
Contents of On horsemanship
Part I: Selecting a Young Horse
Xenophon details what is to be examined when inspecting a horse to buy as a war-mount. He is especially careful to stress the importance of soundness. His recommendations include: A hoof of thick horn, and a frog that is held off the ground. Pasterns that are not too straight and upright, as these will jar the rider and are more likely to become sore, nor too long and low, as they will strike the ground when galloping and will be cut on rocks. Thick cannon bones Good bend in the knees, as the horse is less likely to stumble or to break down Thick and muscular forearms Broad chest, for both beauty and because the legs will be less likely to interfere A neck that is high-set and carried upward. Xenophon believed this would allow the horse to better see what was in front of him, and also make him less able to overpower the rider, because it would be more difficult to put his head down. A bony head with a small jawbone, a soft mouth, and prominent eyes for good vision Large nostrils, for good respiration and a fiercer appearance A large crest and small ears Tall withers, to help hold the rider on, and to give a good attachment between the shoulder and the body Double "loins" are more comfortable to sit on, as well as prettier A deep, rounded side, which allows the rider to stay on more easily, and allows the horse to better digest his food Broad, short loins, allowing the horse to raise the forehand and engage the hindend (Xenophon describes the ability to collect), and are stronger than long loins. The hindquarters should be muscular and firm, for speed The gaskins and buttocks should be well separated, so the horse stands wide behind, allowing him to be more balanced, and to give a prouder bearing He should not have large testicles (also knowing how the young horse reacts when being ridden, and also the signs it knows and the signs that it was trained with,)
Xenophon then directs the reader to look at a young colt's cannons to predict his height.
Many of Xenophon's suggestions are still applied today when selecting a sport horse.
Part II: Breaking the Colt Xenophon first makes a point to say that the reader should not waste his time nor endanger his healthXen. Horse. 2.1 by personally breaking colts.
Before the horse is delivered to the trainer, the owner should know that he has a good temperament and gentle nature. The horse should trust people, knowing that they are the providers of food and water. If this is done correctly, the young colt should grow to love people. The groom should stroke or scratch the colt, so that he enjoys human company, and should take the young horse through crowds to accustom him to different sights and noises. If the colt is frightened, the groom should reassure him, rather than punish him, and teach the animal that there is nothing to fear.
Part III: Selecting an Older Horse Xenophon writes that these passages are to help the reader from being cheated.
The age of the horse should first be determined. To do so, Xenophon directs the reader to look at the horse's teeth. If the horse has lost all of his milk teeth (making him older than five), the author suggests the reader not buy the horse.
The horse should then be bridled, to make sure he accepts the bit, and mounted, to assess if he will stand still for the rider. He should then be ridden away from the stable, to see if he is willing to leave other horses.
The softness of the animal's mouth may be determined by performing a volte in both directions. The horse should then be galloped, pulled up hard, and turned in the opposite direction to see if he is responsive to the rein. Xenophon also suggests that the reader make sure that the horse is docile to the whip, as an unsubmissive animal will only make for a disobedient mount, which would be especially dangerous in battle.
If the horse is intended as a war-mount, he should be jumped over ditches, walls, and on and off high banks, and should also be galloped up and down steep inclines. These tests can be used to determine his spirit and soundness. However, Xenophon urges the reader not to reject a horse that can not easily perform these tasks, as this is more likely due to lack of experience than inability, and if the horse is trained he will soon be able to perform these tasks easily. He does warn, however, that a nervous, skittish, or vicious horse is unacceptable as a war-mount.
Xenophon concludes that a good war-mount should be sound, gentle, fast, and above all: obedient.
Part IV: Caring for the Horse The horse should be housed in a stable where he may be easily checked on by the master. This allows the master to ensure his animal is receiving appropriate care, to prevent his food from being stolen, and to watch to see whether the horse scatters his food.
Xenophon believed that if the horse scattered his food he was showing symptoms of too much blood, and was in need of veterinary care, that he was over-fatigued, and required rest, or that he suffered from indigestion or some other sickness. He stressed that this symptom should be used as an early sign of sickness so that the horse's keeper will be able to catch the illness early.
Xenophon also stressed the importance of caring for the horse's feet. He suggested that the flooring of the stable should not be damp and should not be smooth, and that the stable should therefore be built with sloped channels of cobblestones the size of the horse's hoof. The stableyard should be of pebbles to strengthen the hooves, and should be surrounded by a skirt of iron so that the pebbles do not scatter. These surfaces are intended to strengthen the hoof wall, frog, and sole of the hoof.
The groom should curry the horse after he is fed each morning, and should unhalter the horse after he has been fed.
The mouth should be cared for and made soft with the application of oil.
Part V: Grooming the Horse
The horse's groom should be well-trained. He should not tie the halter to the manger where the rope meets the head, as the horse is likely to knock his head on the manger and injure himself. The sores will then make him less tractable when bridled or groomed. He should also tie the horse at a point above the level of his head, so that, when the horse tosses his head, he slackens the rope rather than tightening it.
The groom should be instructed to clean the animal's stall every day. He should attach a muzzle to the mouth when the horse is taken out to be groomed or to roll, or whenever he is taken somewhere without a bit, so that the horse cannot bite, preventing the horse from that bad vice.
The groom should first clean the head and mane, and work his way down the animal's body. The hair should be brushed first against the grain, to lift the dirt, and then in the direction of the hair, to remove the dirt. However, the back of the horse should not be touched with a brush, but the groom should use only his hand to clean it, in the direction of the hair's growth, so that the area where the rider sits is not injured.
The head should be cleaned only with water, because it is bony and will be injured otherwise. The forelock should also be cleaned with water alone. Xenophon notes that the forelock prevents irritants from getting in the horse's eyes. The tail and mane should be washed, to keep the hairs growing, as the tail is used to swat insects and the mane may be grabbed by the rider more easily if long. Xenophon also notes that the mane and tail are the pride of the horse, as a broodmare will not allow herself to be easily covered by an ass unless her mane is clipped.
It is suggested that the legs not be washed, as the hooves deteriorate from daily washing, but should simply be rubbed and curried by hand. The belly should also not be washed, not only because it is annoying to the horse, but because a clean belly will collect more things on it, and the area will soon be dirty again.
Part VI: Grooming and Bridling the Horse Correctly and Safely
The groom should face backward when grooming the horse, and stand out of the way of the animal's leg near the shoulder blade, so as not to be kicked or knocked by the knee. He should avoid approaching the head or tail straight on, as the horse can easily overpower him by rearing or kicking. Therefore, the side is the safest place to stand.
The groom should clean the frog by picking up the hoof and folding the pastern upward.
When leading the horse, the groom should not lead in front. To do so would prevent him from protecting himself, and would allow the horse to do as he pleases. The horse should also not lead the way, as he may easily cause trouble or might turn around to face the groom. Therefore, it is best to lead the horse from the side, as there he will be most controllable and it is the easiest place for him to be quickly mounted should the need arise.
To insert the bit into the horse's mouth, the groom should stand on the near side of the horse, place the reins over the animal's head, and raise the headstall in his right hand while directing the bit to the horse's mouth with his left. If the horse refuses the bit, the groom should hold the bit against the horse's teeth with his fingers, and insert his left thumb in the horse's jaws. If the horse still refuses, the groom should press the animal's lips against his canine tooth, which should make the horse open his mouth.
Here Xenophon suggests that the horse be bitted not only before he is to be worked, but also before he is fed and led home from a ride, so that he does not necessarily associate the bit with discomfort and labor.