In Africa, witchcraft generally refers to certain individuals using hidden or invisible means, especially supernatural powers, to purposefully harm others or pursue self-interest at the expense of others, though beliefs and practices surrounding witchcraft vary both historically and between local groups. Throughout much of the continent, witchcraft constitutes an important dimension of social reality, and is often intertwined with politics and economics.

The term witchcraft has been criticised by some anthropologists for being overly generic and obfuscating local conceptualisations and practices. Monica Wilson wrote that witchcraft was the inversion of accepted behavioural norms, and the "wilful misdirection of the mystical powers" innate to each person. W.M.J. Binsbergen differentiated between "anti-personal witchcraft" (someone causing another's misfortunes, between whom there is existing tension) and "impersonal witchcraft" (reckless pursuit of self-interested gain through manipulation). Earlier generations of scholars emphasised African witchcraft as serving to maintain "social and cosmological order", while recent scholars have interpreted African witchcraft as critical social commentary on modernity and postcolonial capitalism. Accused witches are often ostracised or subject to physical harm such as assault or murder. In parts of Africa, beliefs about illness being caused by witchcraft continue to fuel suspicion of modern medicine, with serious healthcare consequences.

In the Central African Republic, hundreds of people are convicted of witchcraft yearly, with reports of violence against accused women. In west Kenya, there have been cases of accused witches being burned to death in their homes by mobs. Malawi faces a similar issue of child witchcraft accusations, with traditional healers and some Christian counterparts involved in exorcisms, causing abandonment and abuse of children.Byrne, Carrie 2011. Hunting the vulnerable: Witchcraft and the law in Malawi; Consultancy Africa Intelligence (16 June):

In Nigeria, Pentecostal pastors have intertwined Christianity with witchcraft beliefs for profit, leading to the torture and killing of accused children. Sierra Leone's Mende people see witchcraft convictions as beneficial, as the accused receive support and care from the community.West, Harry G. Ethnographic Sorcery (p. 24); 2007. The University of Chicago Press. (pbk.). In precolonial Tio society (modern-day Republic of Congo), evil was believed to be caused by spirits called apfu, and illness and death caused by witchcraft, with the threat of feuds and witchcraft accusations fostering the unity of a household or village. In Zulu culture, healers known as s protect people from witchcraft and evil spirits through divination, rituals and mediumship.

Description and analysis

In Africa, beliefs and practices surrounding witchcraft vary both historically and between local groups, though such conceptualisations share in common the notion of certain individuals using supernatural powers to purposefully harm others. The term witchcraft has been criticised by some anthropologists for obfuscating local variations. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, an early-20th century English anthropologist who studied Azande witchcraft, differentiated between "witchcraft" (a metaphysical substance inside certain people that flew about at night and harmed others) and "sorcery" (the learned, instrumental use of spells, rituals, or medicines to cause harm to others).

South African anthropologist Monica Wilson wrote that witchcraft was the inversion of accepted behavioural norms, and the "wilful misdirection of the mystical powers" innate to each person. Zambian historian Mutumba Mainga wrote that witchcraft and divination "may be described as a denial, rather than a form, of religion", as they reject sacredness and worship, and said that they serve to give adherents control over their lives. Other scholars have argued that witchcraft is religious, though according to anthropologist James H. Smith this is not the commonly-held view in African societies.

In much of Africa, witchcraft constitutes an important dimension of social reality, and is intertwined with politics and economics. Evans-Pritchard argued that, contrary to colonial authorities who viewed African witchcraft as "backward" and "irrational", it is rational and compatible with empirical evidence as it addresses "why" misfortune occurs rather than "how", and has a coherent logical system. Early generations of scholars emphasised African witchcraft as functioning to maintain "social and cosmological order", as the threat of witchcraft accusations encourages social togetherness, while accusations themselves serve as a medium through which to voice grievances.

Witches are thought to be motivated by, among other reasons, envy (rooted in a zero-sum worldview due to scarce resources), enforcement of norms, revenge, or antisocial tendencies, while accusations can similarly be motivated by envy or high economic inequality, rivalry, retribution, or other recognisable social factors. Vulnerable groups are often the target of accusations, such as older women and widows who are viewed as behaving "oddly", and sometimes abnormal or unwanted children.

Trials by ordeal or divination are sometimes used to help identify witches, and accused witches are often ostracised or subject to physical harm such as assault or murder. With the decline in power of traditional/precolonial-era courts and customary law, failure to incorporate witchcraft beliefs into national/state legal systems (along with colonial-era laws that criminalise accusations) has led to an increase in vigilante witch-killings and mob violence, which tends to get substantial media coverage.

Scholars in the 2000s have interpreted African witchcraft as critical social commentary on modernity and postcolonial capitalism and violence, possibly influenced by the values of reciprocity in kinship systems. Witchcraft is often associated with the rich and powerful, namely the abuse of power and the "accumulation of wealth without sweat". Dutch anthropologist W.M.J. Van Binsbergen differentiated between "anti-personal" and "impersonal" witchcraft, where anti-personal witchcraft involves misfortunes caused by another person with whom there is existing tension, while impersonal witchcraft constitutes "the reckless manipulation of human material for strictly individual purposes". Female witches are generally ostracised, while male witches (or "wizards") who hold public positions are tolerated as they are considered too powerful to curtail. Witchcraft is not viewed as only affecting African societies, but as a global phenomenon; ideologies and practices that contribute to development in Western societies such as individualism, privatisation, and land expropriation are often viewed as "forms and/or engines of witchcraft". Several scholars have argued that belief in witchcraft has had a negative effect on development, and practical-theologist Frederick Kakwata has advocated for pastors to consider the spiritual dimension of poverty among those affected. David Ngong, a scholar of African Christianity, has lamented what he views as anthropologists' and Christian preachers' legitimisation and normalisation of witchcraft, describing it as a worldview that "is not conducive to the economic development of the continent and its enhanced position in the modern world".

History

Pre-colonial Africa saw the existence of indigenous witchcraft practices, with some societies attributing supernatural powers to certain individuals. These beliefs ranged from beneficial powers like healing to malevolent forces capable of harm. The arrival of European colonial powers introduced significant changes. Informed by European witchcraft which was retrospectively viewed as irrational persecution of the disadvantaged (specifically women), colonial authorities viewed African witchcraft as "backward", "irrational", and "superstitious", and attempted to suppress or eradicate indigenous practices, leading to the criminalization and persecution of suspected witches. This colonial influence sparked a complex interplay between traditional beliefs and foreign religions like Christianity and Islam.

In the post-independence era some African countries continued to grapple with witchcraft-related issues, including accusations and violence. Witchcraft remains a significant aspect of many people's lives, with varying perceptions of its powers and dangers. Legal responses have emerged in some nations to protect individuals from harm and discrimination due to witchcraft accusations, but the practice and beliefs continue to evolve in the context of modernization and globalization.

Influence on witchcraft in Latin America

African witchcraft beliefs have exerted a profound influence on practices called brujeria in Latin America, especially in regions with incoming African diaspora religions, such as Brazil, Cuba, and the Caribbean. This influence is marked by syncretism, where African witchcraft beliefs have merged with Indigenous, European, and Christian elements. For instance, in Brazil's Candomblé and Cuba's Santería, African Orisha worship is blended with Catholicism, allowing practitioners to maintain their African spiritual heritage while adapting to the dominant religious culture.

By region

Azande

Witchcraft plays a significant role in the beliefs and culture of the Azande people, located in North Central Africa, particularly in regions like South Sudan, the Central African Republic, and the Northern Democratic Republic of Congo. In Azande society, witchcraft is perceived as a potent force used to harm individuals, and it permeates every aspect of their lives. They believe that witchcraft is hereditary and can only be passed from parent to child of the same gender. This psychic power is believed to work at close range and can manipulate nature to cause harm, such as using animals or collapsing structures.

The Azande do not attribute human errors like mistakes in farming or moral crimes like lying to witchcraft. Instead, they primarily associate it with negative occurrences, such as disease and death. A witch will only use their powers against someone they dislike, with the process involving the transfer of the victim's soul to a group of witches. While the victim's relatives can prepare a defense, they must seek advice from an oracle before retaliating.

Oracles are crucial in Azande society for identifying those responsible for using witchcraft and predicting future tragedies. They employ various methods, such as the poison oracle (using a poisoned chicken), to determine if witchcraft is being used. The outcome of the oracle's decision influences the course of action taken by the community. Besides the poison oracle, there are also the termite oracle and the rubbing-board oracle, each with its level of reliability.

In addition to oracles, witch doctors are also consulted to predict disasters and identify witches. They undergo extensive training and perform rituals, often in front of a crowd of villagers, to locate the source of evil magic. Medicinal herbs play a crucial role in the power of witch doctors.