__NOTOC__ The Kuki Rebellion or Anglo-Kuki War also known as the Kuki Rising (), was a tribal revolt during the British colonial rule in India during World War One.
It was a rebellion by the Kuki tribes of Manipur, ostensibly to resist their forcible recruitment into labour corps for the First World War. From a wider historical perspective, it can also be read as a response to the colonial intrusion into Kuki livelihoods, with new forms of economic relations and land policies, as well as the declining authority of Kuki chiefs. The colonial government responded with military operations which burned at least 126 Kuki villages and several food stocks, which the government deemed necessary to suppress the rebellion. During 2017–2019, the Kuki community of Manipur arranged centennial commemorations for the event at multiple locations in Manipur. Their celebration of the event as a "war" came into contestation by the Meitei and Naga communities of Manipur.
Background Ashok Kumar Ray gives four causes for the uprising. These are the labour recruitment drives for World War One, the corruption of lambus, customary payments to hillmen on Pothang or for foreign service, and house tax. Lambus were hill advisors and administrators who gained influence in Manipur and became infamous for corruption and bribery practices. This behaviour also challenged the prestige and authority of the Kuki chiefs, thus leading to resentment. Historians have argued that the Kukis were led by their chiefs to rebel against the British due to fear of exploitation of their traditional village authority and chieftainship. Under direct administraiton in Manipur since 1982, the Hill men were made to pay house tax and forced labour (pothang). Taxes were raised double for small villages to discourage the splitting of villages. The Kukis resented the regime and some had left to maintain independence to unadministered areas or reject British demands. This tax boycott led to an expedition in 1910 against the Aishan tribe.
Zou outlines that the chiefs also held a fear of the overseas and the absence of able-bodied men to sustain crops and cultivation of the land. Traditional beliefs also played a role. The () could not perform () for healing sick people without the head of the family present at the rite. This belief also applied to communal feasting which did not occur normally with absent family members. Other reasons cited were the romantic courtships of the tribal youth. Girls in villages courted boys, spreading rumours about bad omens and dreams of overseas journeys.
Historian Jankhomang Guite points out that resistance in colonies to enlistment for the World War 1 were also experienced in Africa with passive resistance. France experienced armed rebellions in Bélédougou, West Volta, South Constantinois, Tunisia and Benin; the British in Kenya, Southern Nyasaland (Zimbabwe), Egypt and Nigeria. In India, such resistance resonated with the Santhal Rebellion in Orissa and the Northwest Frontier, which experienced five uprisings
With the outbreak of war, the Kukis were subject to rumours that the Germans were winning the war and the British were withdrawing from India. Another rumour detailed that labour corps, which was intended to be a non-combat role, were being used on the front lines and guaranteeing death.
The British entered into negotiations, and some tribes gave in. The Kukis, however, remained adamant and opposed the conscription. The chiefs who cooperated with the British were mostly Christian converted chiefs. The traditional animists chiefs held a belief in which protected them in their jurisdiction of rule. In particular, the Chiefs of Mombi and Longyi refused to cooperate. When warned, they retorted that any attempts to punish them would see them use force in retaliation. In September, Captain Coote with 100 rifles marched to Mombi to investigate the issue but was met with a skirmish which destroyed the village. Attempts to reach Longyi was halted and the negotiations with Kukis were resumed. The negotiations concerned the wife of H.W.G. Cole, who personally knew the chief of Mombi. The Mombi chiefdom had been making raids into the Manipur Valley while Cole was in France. The Mombi Chief, Ngulkhup, agreed to negotiate and met with Mrs Cole, who was accompanied by an interpreter. Mrs Cole met with Ngkhulp but was frustrated as he did not listen to reason. Mrs Cole returned to Imphal. Negotiations failed, and J.C. Higgins took 50 soldiers to Mombi Kuki village and burned it down on 17 October 1917. The Political Officers in Manipur were reprimanded for the burning of Mombi and forbidden to use force for labour recruitment. No Military expeditions were permitted without the sanction of the Government of India. The Political Agent however, sensing the preparations for war, applied for punitive action to induce submission. The Government of India invoked the doctrine of minimum force to be used only for preserving order.
Planning The rebellion was planned in coordination with the Grand Chiefs-in-council in several regions, who decided to wage war against the British. A total of 150 chiefs met during the assembly and resolved to not obey any orders or sommon from Government and to fight any attempts to enforce order. A ritual was performed known as sathin-salung-neh (). The confederation of Kuki chiefs at Aisan, Chassad, Jampi and Khongjang formed the basis of the revolt. Colonel H.W.G. Cole, the political agent of Manipur, recorded that the Kuki chiefs had taken an oath via killing a mithun that no one would go to France or send their subjects there. The four chiefs who made this oath were: Chengjapao (Chief of Aishan), Khutinthang (Chief of Jampi), Pache (Chief of Chassad) and Ngullen (Chief of Khongjang). Khutinthang had already shown hostility by prohibiting the entrance of lambus into his village, seizing their property, and destroying it.
The Zou chiefs made an alliance with the Haokip (Thadou) of Ukha and Mombi. There was another meeting at Haopi peak (Tuidam) to decide on the practical strategies of the resistance. Considerations included breakdown of British stockades during the rain and to punish friendly villages of the British. The Zou's backed the Haokip and threatened to attack Thiangkangphai village when travelling to Ukha as it was friendly to the British. The Zou at Ukha reinforced the Haokip and settled along the IMphal and Khana River valleys. They fired upon the British. The Gotengkot encounter saw high casualties on British forces.
The Kukis began sending messages through traditional communication channels. The messages were disseminated to the Kuki tribes in Manipur, the Naga Hills, the North Cachar Hills, the Chin Hills, Thaungdut State, and the Somra Tract. The messengers used thingkhuo-le-malcha, a relayed message of unity to face against a common enemy in an emergency. The contacted villages sent messengers to further villages and spread the scheme. The tribes involved ranged from Thadou tribes, Zou tribes and the Chin tribes.
Conflict The beginning of the war is debated. Generally it is stated as December 1917 following draft opposition in March 1917. 10 December 1917 was given as the official day of the beginning of the outbreak as that is when the attack on Itoll Station occurred according to the Assam Government. The Burmese Government fixes it at 21 December when the 'revolt' broke out.
J.C. Higgins became the Political Officer of Manipur and led a column of 160 rifles into the hills in December 1917. The Kuki's resisted the column with the use of guerrilla warfare. They utilised old flintlock and muzzle-loaders alongside their pumpi (leather cannons) using homemade gunpowder. The pumpi was a tightly bound leather rolled into a compact tube and bound with leather strips. A vent is made, and gunpowder is poured in with slugs or stones. It was activated by hand or tripwire but could mostly be used once. The British described them as snipers who did not rush their camps. The Kukis would routinely target the British soldiers and the subordinates over soldiers in the column. The raids by the Mombi and Longya chiefs were soon joined by the Hinglep and Ukah in the surrounding hills. A raid on the Itoll Police Thana near Shuganoo and another raid on Moirang led to the Assam Rifles at Imphal being dispatched. A group of 80 men were assigned to Lieutenant Halliday towards Mombi and another 80 was assigned to Captain Coote and Lieutenant Hooper to Hinglep. Halliday was overwhelmed during engagement and withdrew to Imphal. Coote succeeded in Moirang where he punished the allied tribes of the kuki chiefs. As a result of this escalation, the southern and southwestern hills became an activie rebellion zone and closed the roads to Burma, destroyed telegraph lines and killed officials.
In December 1918 the British stationed themselves and built a military post at Sugunu. Political agent of Manipur, Cosgrave and Lieutenant Halliday marched to punish the Mombi rebels. The Zou ambushed them at Tuibom at the crossing of the Chakpi River. Cosgrave thus retreated due to the disabling of his advance by casualties. The bodies of Halliday's killed men were thrown into a ravine with their heads, hands and feet cut off. The Zou fighters composed a () of the encounter.
In late 1917, the Southern Chin Hills in Burma also began to call for the services of the Assam Rifles. The Chin Hills' attempt to raise a labour corps aggravated tribal discontent. In early December 1917, the southern Chins began a rising and surrounded Haka Station. The British in Haka requested urgent assistance. Captain Falkland of the Assam Rifles in Aizawl marched with 150 soldiers to Haka. During the march, another wire from Falam also requested help. Captain Montifiore of the Assam Rifles in Kohima marched with 150 soldiers to relieve them.
At Imphal, two columns were trained by 22 January 1918. 120 rifles were assigned each to Captain Coote and Political Agent Higgins to move through Mombi and Longyi. The two columns left Imphal on 23 January 1918. The village of Longyi was destroyed for its participation in the raid on the police Thana. Coote reached the old site of Mombi which had been burned in September by him. He encamped there and the next day discovered the new village of Mombi, 4 miles east of him. The new village was destroyed. Coote and the column moved towards Longyi and discovered that Steadman's column from Chin Hills had arrived at Longyi and burnt it quickly when they arrived on 27 January. Coote continued to punish the remaining villages under Mombi. He reached Nungoinuw with a strong stockade, which was evacuated when his column reached it. His second settlement found was already destroyed.
On 27 January 1918, Captain Steadman's column marched from Lenakot to Khullen Khoilet village located in South Manipur along the Imphal River. Steadman met no resistance at Longya (Chief Ngulbul's village), which they burned. Steadmen then crossed the river and climbed a hill to plan an attack on a Haika village. However, at Gotengkot, they met fierce opposition from the Zou and Haokip fighters. Steadman lost 11 men, and several were wounded. Gotengkot was defended under the combined leadership of Doungul, Thongkhai, Ngulbul, Somthawng, Samkhohau, Amvum and others. Doungul and his men fired at the British advancing troops while Mangvung (Haokip chief) released stone traps that rolled down the slope and killed the soldiers. Chief Doungul, standing in the front line in the ensuing shootout, was shot in the chest and died later on. Captain Steadman was seriously injured. His interpreter, Paudailou Sukte, was also killed in the fight. Reinforcements were sent through Coote's column, but the Zous and Haokips had escaped into the jungle.