The Arab migrations to the Maghreb involved successive waves of migration and settlement by Arab peoples in the Maghreb region of North Africa, encompassing modern-day Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. The process took place over several centuries, from the early 7th century to the 17th century. The Arab migrants hailed from the Middle East, particularly the Arabian Peninsula, with later groups arriving from the Levant and Iraq.
The influx of Arabs to the Maghreb began in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb, when Arab armies conquered the region as part of the early Muslim conquests. This initial wave was followed by subsequent periods of migration and settlement, notably during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates and later Arab dynasties. However, the most significant wave occurred in the 11th century with the arrival of more Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, such as Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, and Maqil. The last notable influx was from Al-Andalus in the 17th century as a result of the Reconquista. These migrants established numerous Arab empires and dynasties in the Maghreb, such as the Aghlabids, Idrisids, Sulaymanids, Salihids, Fatimids, Saadians and 'Alawites.
Arab migration had a profound impact on the culture and demographics of the Maghreb. Over centuries, the region underwent a process of Arabization, in which the indigenous Berber population adopted the Arabic language and culture. While genetic studies show high continuity with pre-Arab populations, several million Berbers underwent an ethno-socio-linguistic transformation following the migration of several tens thousands of Bedouins. Historians have characterized the Arab migrations, particularly those of the Hilalians, as the most significant event in the medieval history of the Maghreb.
Causes There were multiple factors that caused Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb. The first Arabs arrived in the 7th century with the goals of conquering Byzantine territories in the Maghreb and spreading Islam to the local populations, as well as protecting Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene" according to historian Will Durant. The Arabs who arrived in the 11th century were driven by factors such as instability and political unrest in the Mashriq. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb increased during periods of unrest and disorder. During a period of severe drought in Egypt due to a fall in the level of the Nile river, as well as plague and economic crisis, Bedouin tribes such as Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym moved to the Maghreb, where the economic situation was better. The Fatimid caliph also persuaded them to march westwards by giving each tribesman a camel and money and helping them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile.
Other Arab nomads were encouraged to settle in the Maghreb by local Arab dynasties, such as the Idrisids, Aghlabids, Salihids and Fatimids, to fulfil the Arabization of the non-Arab populations. Commercial activities such as the Trans-Saharan trade boosted the expansion of Islam and spread of Arabic, and trade with the Mashriq brought several Arab groups to the Maghreb. The Arab emigrants to the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century were largely refugees from Al-Andalus who left Christian Spanish persecution following the Fall of Granada in 1492.
History and migrations
Rashidun and Umayyad era (7th–8th century)
Arab migration to the Maghreb first started in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb. This first started in 647 under the Rashidun Caliphate, when Abdallah ibn Sa'd led the invasion with 20,000 soldiers from Medina in the Arabian Peninsula, swiftly taking over Tripolitania and then defeating a much larger Byzantine army at the Battle of Sufetula in the same year, forcing the new Byzantine Exarch of Africa to pay tribute. By the late 7th century, the surge in Arab migration eventually succeeded in overcoming both Berber and Byzantine resistance. This gradual process led to the conversion of the Berbers to Islam and the full integration of the entire Maghreb into the Umayyad Caliphate. The Berbers embraced Islam en masse during the conquest, initially with limited commitment, although they continued to adhere to the religion due to its clear and simple doctrine, which strongly appealed to them. Throughout the period of conquest, Arab migrants settled in all parts of the Maghreb, arriving as peaceful newcomers who were welcomed everywhere. Large Arab settlements were established in several areas. A considerable portion of the Arab settlers belonged to the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim. During the earliest Muslim conquests in the 7th to 8th centuries, about 150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb.
Arabs arrived in the Maghreb in large numbers after an expedition by the Banu Muzaina tribe to the Maghreb under the leadership of Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi in the 7th or 8th century. The Arab Muslim conquerors left a significantly more lasting influence on the culture of the Maghreb compared to earlier and later conquerors, and by the 11th century, the Berbers had undergone significant Islamization and Arabization. The Umayyad conquest introduced 50,000 Arab troops who had originally served in Egypt. These soldiers, along with their descendants, formed a hereditary ruling class, with very few elites being outsiders. These soldiers were rewarded with land grants, creating an Arab aristocracy that controlled substantial territories, which were primarily cultivated by slaves from sub-Saharan Africa. One notable example of this aristocracy were the Fihrids, descendants of Uqba ibn Nafi, who held a privileged status in both Ifriqiyan (modern-day Tunisia) and Andalusi society. Additionally, there were other influential Arab settlers, particularly those of Qurayshi ancestry. Arab settlers mostly settled in cities, such as Kairouan, until the migration of the nomadic Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century. During this time, the majority of Maghrebi Arabs were Qahtanites from South Arabia.
The Umayyad Caliphate was aware of the importance of the spread and settlement of Arabs in the Maghreb to the Caliph. Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik swore that he would send a large army and added "I will not leave a single Berber compound without pitching beside it a tent of a tribesman from Qays or Tamim".
Abbasid era (8th century)
The Abbasids reconquered Ifriqiya in 761 from the Kharijites that took over the region following the fall of the Muhallabids. During the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, there was a great influx of Khurasani Arabs from Iraq to the Maghreb. These were mostly North Arabian tribes, among them was the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim. This shifted the tribal balance of Ifriqiya in favor of the North Arabian Adnanite tribes who became the majority, to the detriment of the formerly more numerous South Arabian Qahtanite tribes.
Aghlabid, Idrisid, and Fatimid era (9th–10th century)
In 800, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab was appointed as governor of Ifriqiya by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. He founded the Aghlabid dynasty, a dynasty of emirs from the tribe of Banu Tamim. During this time, Arab migration increased in numbers due to the anti-Kharijite wars against the Rustamid dynasty. The structure of the Aghlabid army was largely derived from the Arab tribes that settled in Ifriqiya during the late 7th and 8th centuries. The soldiers were likely paid at specific intervals, with cavalry earning twice as much as infantry due to the higher expenses associated with their horses and equipment. These troops were called the jund, descendants of Arab tribesmen who had participated in the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. They often rebelled against the Aghlabid regime.
In 789, Ali ibn Abi Talib's descendant Idris ibn Abdallah fled from the Hejaz and arrived in Tangier after the failed revolt against the Abbasids in the Battle of Fakhkh. He later moved to Walili and founded the city of Fez in the same year. He founded the Hashemite Idrisid dynasty, which established control over modern-day Morocco and western Algeria. The Idrisid dynasty played an important role in the early Islamization of the area, and contributed to an increase in Arab migration and Arabization in major urban centers of the western Maghreb. Several Shia Arabs rapidly flocked to Fez, Arabizing the region. Fez experienced large waves of Arab migration, including one which involved 800 Arabs from Al-Andalus in 818 and one which involved 2,000 Arab families from Ifriqiya in 824.
At the beginning of the 10th century, several Ismaili Shia refugees from the Abbasid Caliphate settled among the Kutama Berbers of present-day Algeria. In 893, an Arab Shia missionary known as Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i arrived in the Maghreb from Yemen, who subsequently converted the Kutama of northeastern Algeria to Ismaili Shi'ism. These came under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, who organized an army to fight the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty of Ifriqiya. After numerous battles against the Aghlabids, the Fatimids emerged victorious in 909 and conquered Ifriqiya, establishing the Fatimid Caliphate.
These Arab political entities, in addition to the Salihids and Fatimids, were influential in encouraging Arabization by attracting Arab migrants and by promoting Arab culture. In addition, disturbances and political unrest in the Mashriq compelled the Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb in search of security and stability. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb increased during periods of unrest and disorder.
Arab tribes in the Maghreb (9th century) By the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), there were numerous Arab tribes in the Maghreb. According to al-Ya'qubi, in the mountains near Cyrenaica were the Arab tribes of Azd, Lakhm, Judham, al-Sadaf, and other Yemenite tribes on the eastern mountain, and Ghassan, Judham, Azd, Tujayb and others on the western mountain. In Waddan, there was a group that claimed to be Yemenite, and in Zawila, there were Arabs from the region of Khurasan and the cities of Basra and Kufa.
In Kairouan, there were Arabs from Quraysh and other tribes within the groupings of Mudar, Rabi'a and Qahtan. In nearby Al-Jazira, there were Arabs from Banu Adi and other groups. In Satfura, there were people from Quraysh and Quda'a, in Baja there were people from Banu Hashim, and in Majjana there were people from Diyar Rabi'a.
In al-Zab, in its capital Tobna, there was Quraysh, and other Arabs. In Sétif, there were tribesmen from Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah. In Bilizma, the population consisted of tribesmen from Banu Tamim. Al-Ya'qubi's information does not include the whole Maghreb, such as the western Maghreb where the Idrisids arrived with Arab tribes and encouraged other Arabs to arrive.
Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym (11th–12th century)
The 11th century witnessed the most significant wave of Arab migration, surpassing all previous movements. According to traditional narratives like those pushed by Ibn Khaldun, this event unfolded when the Zirid dynasty of Ifriqiya proclaimed its independence from the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. In retribution against the Zirids, the Fatimids dispatched large Bedouin Arab tribes, mainly the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. These tribes followed a nomadic lifestyle and were originally from the Hejaz and Najd.