The functions of the Pharaoh are the various religious and governmental activities performed by the king of Egypt during Antiquity (between the years 3150 and 30 BC). As a central figure of the state, the pharaoh is the obligatory intermediary between the gods and humans. To the former, they ensured the proper performance of rituals in the temples; To the latter, they guaranteed agricultural prosperity, the defense of the territory and impartial justice.
In the sanctuaries, the image of the sovereign is omnipresent through parietal scenes and statues. In this iconography, the pharaohs are invariably represented as the equals of the gods. In the religious speech, they are however only their humble servant, a zealous servant who makes multiple offerings. This piety expresses the hope of a just return of service. Filled with goods, the gods must favorably activate the forces of nature for a common benefit to all Egyptians. The only human being admitted to dialogue with the gods on an equal level, Pharaoh is the supreme officiant; the first of the priests of the country. More widely, the pharaonic gesture covers all the fields of activity of the collective and ignores the separation of powers. Also, every member of the administration acts only in the name of the royal person, by delegation of power.
From the Pyramid Texts, the political actions of the sovereign are framed by a single maxim: "Bring Maat and repel Isfet", that is to say, promote harmony and repel chaos. As the nurturing father of the people, Pharaoh ensures prosperity by calling upon the gods to regulate the waters of the Nile, by opening the granaries in case of famine and by guaranteeing a good distribution of arable land. Chief of the armies, the pharaoh is the brave protector of the borders. Like Ra who fights the serpent Apophis, the king of Egypt repels the plunderers of the desert, fights the invading armies and defeats the internal rebels. Pharaoh is always the sole victor; standing up and knocking out a bunch of prisoners or shooting arrows from his battle chariot. As the only legislator, the laws and decrees he promulgates are inspired by divine wisdom. This legislation, kept in the archives and placed under the responsibility of the vizier, applies to all, for the common good and social agreement.
Origins
Archaeological evidence
At no time between 3150 and 30 BCE were the institutions of the Pharaonic monarchy framed by a charter or a constitutional text. There is therefore no reason to look for a corpus of fundamental laws framing the governmental, military and religious functions exercised by the king of Egypt. During these 3,000 years, the character of Pharaoh was inseparable from the Egyptian state. Even in the midst of the worst political vicissitudes - the periods between the great Empires - the royal prestige remained intact.
The central place of the ruler in society is attested by numerous and varied archaeological sources. As early as the Predynastic period, the king is shown in the exercise of his essential functions: cult to the gods, agrarian rites and warlike activities. Among the most ancient documents, the Scorpion Macehead (about -3100) found at Nekhen can be mentioned. The king is shown with a hoe in his hands and preparing to perform a digging rite. On the same archaeological site, a series of cosmetic palettes was also discovered. The most famous of these is the Narmer Palette, famous for its warlike depiction of the king shown standing and brandishing a club, ready to smash the skull of a kneeling enemy. The documentation on papyrus archived by the scribes has almost entirely disappeared. A few ostraca have better resisted time. However, some major witnesses have survived. Such is the case of the Abusir Papyri, which is a collection of inventories, lists and decrees dating from the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties. Such is also the case of the Harris Papyrus, which is a summary of the numerous royal actions and donations made during the lifetime of Ramesses III in the Twentieth Dynasty. Pharaonic power was naturally manifested in the funerary architecture of the necropolises of Giza, Saqqara and the Valley of the Kings. The Pyramid Texts, while being funerary writings, are also an exposition of the royal ideology where the pharaonic office is magnified and divinized. The temples are the other witnesses of the royal activities with the numerous scenes of offerings to the gods but also the warlike exploits narrated by the sovereigns of the New Kingdom like Thutmose III (battle of Megiddo) and Ramesses II (Battle of Qadesh). In general, the pharaonic functions and activities are attested by an impressive quantity of documents inscribed on steles, on statues, in tombs, in stone quarries, along roads, on places of passage, etc.
The royal schedule
Egyptian sources have not been concerned with describing the daily schedule of the pharaoh. Rather, they tend to magnify the ruler and contextualize their actions in a mythological framework. The description given by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica (Book I, 70–71), although detailed, was done too late - at the end of the Ptolemaic period - to be taken without reservation. Some elements of plausibility are, however, undeniable. The study of the aulic titles worn by courtiers such as "director of the king's linen", "diadem attendant" or "chief of the hairdressers" demonstrate the importance given to the king's rising. Everything in the official phraseology indicates that the royal palace is assimilated to the celestial domain and that the pharaoh evolves there like Ra, the solar star. The dietary abstinence of the king must probably be related to the observance of taboos. The Nubian pharaoh Piye thus refuses to receive men considered impure in his presence because "they were uncircumcised and ate fish".
Teachings
From the 21st century onwards, Egyptian ethics are expressed in wisdom texts. These writings contain value judgments and moral rules based on Maat. Good behavior is idealized and deviations are stigmatized. Concerning the pharaonic functions, the "Teaching for Merikare" ("Enseignement pour Mérikarê") is particularly valuable despite its textual gaps. The teaching is addressed by a father to his son, probably the pharaoh Kheti III to his successor Merikare. The historical context is that of the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom was divided and in the grip of civil war. In the north, the rulers of the Tenth Dynasty of Heracleopolis were installed, while in the south, those of the Eleventh Dynasty of Thebes were evolving. The various pieces of advice addressed to the future pharaoh are presented as a treaty on monarchy. The art of governing is presented in a general way: to reduce the factious, to constitute a powerful army, the virtue of the word and the example, the need to have a long-term vision, respect of the intimates and the notables, the need for a fair justice. All these actions are part of the political situation of the moment which is that of a period of unrest. The teaching is however also presented as an analysis of the royal function. It is not an enthusiastic and excessive praise where the pharaoh is hoisted in the world of the gods. On the contrary, in a pessimistic way, the king is presented as a lonely man, not even assured of being able to transmit his office to his son. Pharaoh Khety admits to being a mere mortal, capable of mistakes and failures. Unceasingly, he must give an account to the gods who observe him and punish him. A bad action is either sanctioned by another through a backlash, or sanctioned by Osiris in the afterlife during the judgment of the soul.
Priestly function
Egyptian temple
The Egyptian temple is a sacred place forbidden to the crowd. The Egyptian term Hout-Netjer, which can be translated as "Abode of the god", indicates that it is a place destined to welcome on earth a part of the divine eternity. It is not a place of gathering where an assembly of believers communes in the same faith. This aspect is not, however, totally evacuated. In rare exceptions, during some annual festivities, devotees are allowed to walk on the floor of the inner courtyards. Sheltered in the naos, in the depths of the sanctuary, the divine statue concentrates within it the mystery of the cosmic forces at work in the universe. At set times, the Hem-Netjer (or "Servants of the God", i.e. the priests) provide the statue with precise domestic care. Hymns are sung to wake her up, she receives clothes and ornaments. Its strength is maintained by several daily meals. In theory, Pharaoh is the only one authorized to approach the statue. In fact, physically absent, they are replaced by the priests, their substitutes. Pharaoh is, however, omnipresent through their image. The entire decoration of the walls is devoted to his encounter with the deity. From the entrance pylons, he pays homage to the gods by offering them kneeling prisoners that he knocks out with his club. On the outer walls, warlike scenes show the royal exploits during battles. Standing in his chariot, Pharaoh shoots deadly arrows while his proud horses trample and rout the enemy forces. With this gesture, the tranquility of the country is assured in the face of external chaos. On the inner walls, the intimacy with the gods is total. Pharaoh is embraced, kissed and invigorated by his divine equals. Elsewhere, more humbly, he stands or kneels and performs the necessary libations, fumigations and purifications before the gods. Multiple gestures of offering are performed. Drinks, food, ornaments, ointments and minerals are brought in order to maintain the divine forces that ensure the prosperity of the country.
Servant of the gods
In the Egyptian texts, the royal person is often designated by the title of hem. Egyptologists, steeped in European monarchical philosophy, generally translate this ancient term by the word "Majesty" which comes from the Latin magnitas, "greatness". This translation is, however, not precise. The hieroglyphic writing renders the word hem by the image of the beater or whitener's stick, a utensil used to beat the linen in order to soften it and to eliminate the last impurities. In the Egyptian lexicon, the word hem is thus not associated with greatness but is linked to the notion of service: hem / hemet (servant / maid) and hemou (launderer). In the Satire of the Trades, the laundering of linen is presented as the most impure of labors because of its contact with the menstrual blood of women.
Since its rediscovery in the nineteenth century, the story has been seen as a source of inspiration for biblical authors (Joseph and the wife of Potiphar). However, the text also has structural similarities with the founding myths of the Shilluk and Anuak peoples of the Upper Nile. The episode of Razzia de Nyikang au Pays du Soleil (theft of cows and women) is quite similar to the military expedition that Pharaoh mounts against Bata in Pays du Pin parasol (a place frequented by Ra) in order to steal his companion from him. At the enthronement of the Shilluk kings, the prince destined to ascend the throne is first captured by dignitaries and symbolically enslaved by the words "You are our Dinka servant". The word netjer (god) is associated with hem-netjer, which means "priest" and, more literally, "servant of the god".