J. R. R. Tolkien derived the characters, stories, places, and languages of Middle-earth from many sources, especially medieval ones. Tolkien and the classical world have been linked by scholars, and by Tolkien himself. The suggested influences include the pervasive classical themes of divine intervention and decline and fall in Middle-earth; the splendour of the Atlantis-like lost island kingdom of Númenor; the Troy-like fall of Gondolin; the Rome-like stone city of Minas Tirith in Gondor; magical rings with parallels to the One Ring; and the echoes of the tale of Lúthien and Beren with the myth of Orpheus descending to the underworld. Other possible connections have been suggested by scholars.
Tolkien stated that he wanted to create a mythology evocative of England, not of Italy. Scholars have noted aspects of his work, such as the plants of Ithilien, which are clearly Mediterranean but not specifically classical.
Tolkien's fiction was brought to a new audience by Peter Jackson's film version of The Lord of the Rings. This in turn influenced the portrayal of the classical world in several later films, such as the 2004 Troy.
Context
J. R. R. Tolkien was a scholar of English literature, a philologist and medievalist interested in language and poetry from the Middle Ages, especially that of Anglo-Saxon England and Northern Europe. His professional knowledge of works such as Beowulf shaped his fictional world of Middle-earth, including his fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings. This did not prevent him from making use of classical sources as well. The classical world has been defined as "the history, literature, myths, philosophy, and society of ancient Greece and Rome". It has been argued that since Tolkien's mythology for England was largely medieval, he needed a classical setting to provide a suitable impression of historical depth.
Classical themes
Decline and fall
The classical scholar Giuseppe Pezzini writes that "narratives of decline" are common in the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. This is seen in the writings of both Hesiod and Ovid. Pezzini sees the decline of Tolkien's world of Arda from its First Age "filled with Joy and Light" down to its "Twilight" Third Age as echoing the classical theme of decline from the Golden Age. Ross Clare analyses how Tolkien's chronicles of the decline and fall of his island paradise of Númenor might have been influenced by classical frameworks of decline and fall, as provided by the historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Suetonius. Clare sees Athenian decline as entailing a three-stage process, like that of Númenor. in Hamish Williams regards the narrative of decline and fall in Númenor as a thought-experiment exercise recalling Plato's philosophical arguments, where certain virtues and ideals (sophocracy, moderation, piety, etc.) are emphasized through their loss.
Tolkien built a process of decline and fall in Middle-earth into both The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings. The pattern is expressed in several ways, including the splintering of the light provided by the Creator, Eru Iluvatar, into progressively smaller parts;, "Ainulindalë" the fragmentation of languages and peoples, especially the Elves, who are split into many groups; the successive falls, starting with that of the angelic spirit Melkor, and followed by the destruction of the two Lamps of Middle-earth and then of the Two Trees of Valinor, and the cataclysmic fall of Númenor. Tolkien's use of the theme cannot be said to be exclusively classical; The Lord of the Rings shares the sense of impending destruction found in Norse mythology, where even the gods will perish. The Dark Lord Sauron may be defeated, but that will entail the fading and departure of the Elves, leaving the world to Men, to industrialise and to pollute, however much Tolkien regretted the fact.
Divine intervention
Pezzini further states that the pattern of divine intervention in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings echoes that in classical epics such as those of Homer, in 8th century BC Greece, and Virgil, in 1st century BC Rome; Tolkien directly linked The Lord of the Rings to their poems in one of his letters. He notes that Tolkien likened his Valar to "the gods of 'traditional' 'higher' mythology" – meaning, as Richard Purtill explained, the Roman or Greek pantheons, or to an extent also the Æsir of Norse mythology – though with definite differences. In particular, in his early work The Cottage of Lost Play he equated the classical gods to the Valar. Pezzini writes that in The Silmarillion, in
Just as with the interactions of the classical gods with mortals, the Valar's interactions with Middle-earth can take multiple forms: direct appearances or theophanies; through messengers such as the Wizard Gandalf, sent by the Valar; through entities in nature, such as eagles or mists; through dreams; through inspiration; and perhaps also through omens. Pezzini writes that Tolkien's approach, that "the gods' messages can be presented as warnings, and not threats or orders and, above all, that they can be ignored by non-divine characters are both unusual scenarios in classical epic". Further points of difference are that if the Valar choose to intervene, they usually do it overtly, unlike the classical gods; and they do so out of a "desire for fellowship" which is lacking in classical accounts. Pezzini comments, too, that divine inspiration is typically a good thing in Tolkien's writings and a bad thing in classical accounts.
+ Giuseppe Pezzini's analysis of covert divine intervention in Middle-earth Type Classical examples from the Aeneid Middle-earth examples from The Silmarillion Theophany Mercury appears to Aeneas Ulmo appears to Turgon and Tuor Through messengers Jupiter sends orders to Aeneas via Mercury Ulmo sends Tuor to warn Gondolin Through entities in nature Juno arranges a storm to bring Dido and Aeneas together Manwë sends Thorondor, King of Eagles, to help Fingon rescue Maedhros Through dreams Mercury appears to Aeneas in a dream, telling him to leave Carthage Ulmo warns Turgon and Finrod in dreams Through inspiration Jupiter inspires Dido to be hospitable to Aeneas Ulmo inspires Tuor to leave his father's land
The Valar intervene, too, in The Lord of the Rings, but always covertly. Pezzini takes the example of the wounding of the Orc captain Grishnákh by a fateful arrow in the dark, soon followed by his death.
+ Giuseppe Pezzini's analysis of a divine intervention in The Lord of the Rings Component Aeneid The Lord of the Rings Event Aeneas is wounded by an arrow Grishnákh is wounded by an arrow; he is then killed with a spear An arrow is sent, ambiguously "unknown what chance or what god" (12.321) "it was aimed with skill, or guided by fate" Implied agent A god The Valar Purpose The god's own To protect humble mortals, so as to fulfil the design of "the Valar, under the One"
Specific parallels
Númenor-Atlantis
Plato's 4th century BC tale of decline in Kritias, from the "decadent magnificence" of Atlantis to the humdrum life of Athens, is "unambiguously and intimately" linked to Tolkien's Númenor, since Tolkien made the comparison himself and actually wrote of "Númenor-Atlantis" in his letters. He had considered using this in a time travel novel. The destruction of Númenor earned it the Quenya name Atalantë "the Downfallen";, "Akallabêth" Tolkien described his invention of this additional allusion to Atlantis as a happy accident when he realized that the Quenya root talat- "to fall" could be incorporated into a name for Númenor.
The commentator Charles Delattre states that Tolkien's tale of Númenor is a retelling of the myth of Atlantis, the only drowned island in ancient literature. Multiple details align: it began as a perfect world, geometrically laid out to reflect its balance and harmony; it abounds in valuable minerals; and it has unmatched power, with a strong fleet able to project control far beyond its shores, like ancient Athens. Númenor's pride, too, writes Delattre, matches the hubris of Plato's Atlantis; and its downfall recalls the destruction of Atlantis.
Michael Kleu writes that Tolkien made "playful use of Greek myths related to Atlas", possibly including pre-Platonic tradition. Kleu comments that the playfulness extends, in The Notion Club Papers,, "The Notion Club Papers", p. 249 to making Plato's 2,000 year old version derive from the "real" Downfall of Númenor, which in Tolkien's chronology took place some 7,000 years before Plato. in
+ Michael Kleu's analysis of parallels between Plato's Atlantis and Númenor Component Atlantis Númenor Location In the ocean to the west of Europe In the ocean to the west of Middle-earth Resources "extraordinar[il]y fruitful and rich in resources and wildlife" Geometry A mountain at the island's centre, with a temple at its top Temple A giant temple to Poseidon, covered in silver A giant temple to Melkor, roofed in silver First King Atlas, born of immortals(the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid AsiaApollodorus, 1.2.3.) Elros, descendant of immortalElves and Maiar Civilisation Greatest maritime power, conquering lands to the east Decline Moral decay and arrogance leads to destruction of the island Destruction Fleet sinks, soldiers swallowed by the earth
Gondolin-Troy
Tolkien scholars have compared the fall of Gondolin to the sack of Troy, noting that both cities were famed for their walls, and likening Tolkien's tale to Virgil's Aeneid. Both have frame stories, situated long after the events they narrate; both have "gods" (Tolkien's Valar) in the action; and both involve an escape. David Greenman compares the actions of Tolkien's quest-heroes to those of Aeneas and Odysseus.
+ David Greenman's analysis of classical "quest-hero" themes Event Classical quest-hero The Lord of the Rings protagonists Escape from wreck of a kingdom, creation of a new one Aeneas, escaping the ruin of Troy Tuor in the fall of Gondolin Return to ravaged home, scour it clean Odysseus on his long-delayed return to Ithaca The four Hobbits in "The Scouring of the Shire"
Greenman compares and contrasts Idril's part in the story to Cassandra and Helen of Troy, two prominent female figures in accounts of the Trojan War: like the prophetess, Idril had a premonition of impending danger and like Helen, her beauty played a major role in instigating Maeglin's betrayal of Gondolin, which ultimately led to its downfall and ruin. Conversely, Greenman notes that Idril's advice to enact a contingency plan for a secret escape route out of Gondolin was heeded by her people, unlike the warning of Cassandra; and that Idril had always rejected Maeglin's advances and remained faithful to Tuor, unlike Helen who left her husband King Menelaus of Sparta for Prince Paris of Troy.