The Paleolithic in the Iberian peninsula is the longest period of Iberian prehistory, spanning from 1.3 million years ago (Ma) to 11,500 years ago, ending at roughly the same time as the Pleistocene epoch. The Paleolithic was characterized by climate oscillations between ice ages and small interglacials, producing heavy changes in Iberia's orography. Cultural change within the period is usually described in terms of lithic industry evolution.
Archaeological sites containing Paleolithic remains are scattered throughout the Iberian peninsula. Atapuerca, an archaeological site near Burgos, constitutes the most abundant and earliest evidence of humankind in Europe, with a rich array of fossils, artifacts, and art dating back nearly one million years. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2000.
Lower Paleolithic The Lower Paleolithic ( 1.3 Ma – 128 ka ago) is the earliest and longest subdivision of the Paleolithic, spanning most of the Calabrian ( 1.8 Ma – 770 ka ago) and Chibanian ( 770 – 126 ka ago) stages. This timespan is mainly studied from fossils of the genus Homo and from lithic tools found at archaeological sites. The Calabrian in Iberia was characterized by a warm climate similar to the modern Mediterranean, and the faunal landscape was similar to that of the current African savanna, with large mammals including elephants, saber-toothed cats, hippopotamuses, and hyenas. In the Chibanian, glaciation caused major changes to the landscape and ecological conditions, leading to the dominance of mammals including rhinoceroses, cave bears, and mammoths.
Iberia was mostly populated by Homo antecessor and Homo heidelbergensis during this period. The two main hypotheses for their arrival are that they crossed from Africa via Gibraltar or from Europe through the Pyrenees. Homo antecessor would be the last common ancestor of our species, Homo sapiens, and Homo heidelbergensis, who would have evolved into Homo neanderthalensis. Some research suggests two long periods of depopulation of the peninsula (between 1.2 Ma and 800 ka ago and between 800 and 600 ka ago).
Oldowan The archaic Lower Paleolithic ( 1.3 Ma – 550 ka ago) corresponds to Oldowan or Mode 1 stone tools, usually called choppers. Both Homo fossils and lithic instruments dating from this period have been found in Iberia. The most ancient of the fossils are a partial mandible of an unidentified Homo species ( 1.2 Ma ago) and a maxilla still pending identification ( 1.4 Ma ago), both discovered in Sima del Elefante, Atapuerca.Atapuerca also hosts several lithic tools from this period, mainly from flint, quartzite, sandstone, quartz and limestone. The flint presents two variations, one of Neogene origins and the other from the Cretaceous, and the rest of materials were transported from the fluvial terraces of Arlanzón and Vena, 1 kilometer from the site. The oldest lithic tool remains ( 1.2 Ma ago) are simple lithic cores and flakes, mainly of flint, from TE9 at Sima del Elefante. Level TD6 of Gran Dolina ( 850 ka ago) features lithic tools of more varied materials and functions, such as denticulate tools and scrapers and one limestone chopper.
Level TD6 of Gran Dolina also contains fossils from 11 Homo antecessor individuals aged approximately 4 to 16, dated to 850 ka ago. They present with similar stone tool marks to those on animal fossils, indicating extraction of the spinal cord and thus constituting the first evidence of cannibalism in the Homo genus. Another significant archeological site for this period is Guadix-Baza (Andalusia), with Mode 1 stone tools, Calabrian fauna with evidence of manipulation, and a human molar dated 1.4 Ma ago.
Acheulean The classical Lower Paleolithic ( 550 – 128 ka ago) corresponds to Acheulean or Mode II stone tools, of which the best representative is the biface. This industry first appeared in Iberia at Barranc de la Boella (Catalonia) 900 ka ago and mostly consisted of choppers and rough bifaces. As such, the lithic tools from Barranc de la Boella are known as archaic Acheulean, in contrast with the more advanced tools at Galería in Atapuerca. Here, there was an advantageous natural trap used to obtain food, used not for habitation but to process herbivores that had fallen through it, so discovered tools consist mainly of bifaces and cleavers.
At Sima de los Huesos, fossils dated 430 ka ago have been identified as an estimated 30 Homo heidelbergensis individuals. Among them, one of the most well preserved is Miguelón or Skull 5. The site also contains thousands of bones from Ursus deningeri, ancestor of the cave bear, among those from other smaller carnivores. Neither evidence of habitation nor of a catastrophic event has been found at the site, so it has been hypothesized that the pit constitutes the first deliberate burial of bodies among Homo. Mitochondrial DNA analysis, possible due to favorable temperature and humidity preservation conditions at the site, showed striking similarities to Denisovan mitochondrial DNA and requires further research. By contrast, nuclear DNA collected from the individuals is more similar to that of the eventual Homo neanderthalensis, suggesting continual hybridization among the different Homo species. The westernmost known remains of Homo heidelbergensis in Europe are found at the Cave of Aroeira (Santarém), dated 400 ka ago, along with evidence of controlled fire. Similar evidence for fire use was found at Torralba and Ambrona (Soria) along with lithic tools and animal fossil remains, including elephant, with and without evidence of human manipulation.
Middle Paleolithic The Middle Paleolithic ( 128 ka – 40 ka ago) in Iberia was characterized by extended occupation by Homo neanderthalensis, who had heavier bodies, higher lung volume, and bigger brains than Homo sapiens. Important archaeological sites containing Neanderthal fossils are Sidrón Cave (Asturias), Pinilla del Valle (Madrid) and Sima de las Palomas (Murcia). Gorham's cave (Gibraltar) contains Neanderthal rock art, suggesting they were more capable of symbolic thought than previously thought. This period, like the previous one, is mainly studied from fossils and stone tools.
Mousterian Five different techniques constitute the Mode 3 or Mousterian lithic tool industry: Levallois, discoid, Quina, laminar, and bifacial, the first three being the more frequent in Iberia. In contrast to the Lower Paleolithic, when habitational places were usually in open air and caves were used circumstantially (such as for burial, tool fabrication, or butchering), caves were increasingly used for habitation in the Mousterian, with remains of home conditioning such as archaic cobblestones (Cave of Els Ermitons) or stub walls (Cave of Morín). There is no evidence of extended usage of bone or antlers for tool fabrication, and because of decomposition, very little evidence of wood usage has survived.
Further heterogeneity among sites also starts appearing: some sites show evidence of occupation by several generations over long periods of time—for example, Cova Negra (Valencia); others were used for animal butchering, similarly to Lower Paleolithic sites; others were primitive lithic tool manufacturing workshops, such as Cantera Vieja (Madrid); and, finally, others mainly served for seasonal logistics, taking into account animal migrations, such as Cova Gran (Lleida).
Mousterian archaeological sites can also be found towards the end of the Lower Paleolithic, between 350 ka and 128 ka ago; however, they are scarcer, concentrated over the coast and nonexistent in most of the southwestern quadrant of the peninsula. Although in the present these sites are on the waterfront, during glacial marine regressions they may have served as lookouts for what would have been kilometer-long marshes. Mousterian fossils are also found at Atapuerca, in Cueva Fantasma ( 60 ka ago) and Galería de las Estatuas ( 110 – 80 ka ago), although they are recent findings and require further research.
Châtelperronian The Châtelperronian industry, mostly found in southern France, is contemporaneous to the period of time when both Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens coexisted in Europe, and thus at first it was attributed to the latter, but the discovery of a full Neanderthal skeleton in a Châtelperronian context changed the attribution to Homo neanderthalensis. Some academics prefer to call it late Mousterian, and there is debate over whether to consider it a proper or a transitional industry, since chronologically it belongs to middle Paleolithic but it shows characteristics of Upper Paleolithic industries.
This industry extended into northern Iberia, although it is not as well represented. Escoural Cave (Évora) contains evidence of human activity 47 ka ago. A Neanderthal skull was found in Forbes' Quarry in Gibraltar in 1848, making it the second territory after Belgium where remains of Neanderthals were found. Further discoveries of Neanderthals in Gibraltar have been made at Devil's Tower Cave. Evidence of their presence in this period is found in Columbeira, Figueira Brava and Salemas. The Cave of Salemas and the Cave of Pego do Diabo, both located in Loures Municipality, were inhabited in the Paleolithic.
Upper Paleolithic
The first remains of Homo sapiens appear in Iberia around 35 ka ago during the Upper Paleolithic ( 40 ka – 11.5 ka ago). Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis coexisted for about 5,000 years, after which time H. neanderthalensis no longer appears in the fossil or archaeological record, indicating extinction. Some have suggested that the newer remains in Iberia suggest Neanderthals were driven out of Central Europe by Homo sapiens to the Iberian peninsula, where they took refuge. Middle Paleolithic archaeological industries lasted until about 28 ka or 26 ka BC in Iberia. A Neanderthal mandible (30 ka BP) and Mousterian tools (27 ka BP) were found in Zafarraya (Andalusia). Châtelperronian remains are found in Cantabria and Catalonia.
Aurignacian The Aurignacian industry, sometimes called Mode 4, lasted c. 40 – 28 ka ago. The first phase, sometimes called archaic Aurignacian or proto-Aurignacian, is contemporary with late Châtelperronian findings and still shares many lithic tools with Mode 3. It is mainly found in northern Iberia (current Cantabria, Asturias, Basque Country, and Catalonia). Around 36 ka ago, it becomes more differentiated and can scarcely be found in Iberia's interior, maybe because of a second wave of Homo Sapiens coming from Europe. The most common findings are antler or bone assegais along with fine flint blades and long scrapers. Mode 4 becomes finally consolidated around 31 ka ago, and archaeological sites are found scattered throughout Iberia.
Some examples of Aurignacian archaeological sites are the Cave of Morín (Cantabria), the Cave of El Pendo (Cantabria), the Cave of El Castillo (Cantabria), Santimamiñe (Basque Country), Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar), Cova de Les Mallaetes (Valencia), and the Cave of Pego do Diablo (Lisbon). The remains of a child dated 24.5 ka ago, known as the Lapedo child, were discovered in Lagar Velho (Leiria), presenting a mosaic of Homo sapiens and Neanderthal features. There is no academic consensus on whether the individual was an hybrid. By the end of the Aurignacian, Homo neanderthalensis had disappeared from Iberia.
Gravettian The Gravettian (28 – 21 ka ago) expanded from eastern Europe to Iberia as the Aurignacian did previously. The Gravettian in Iberia coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum, during which eastern and western Europe became isolated from each other. As such, the Gravettian evolved into the Solutrean in Iberia, whereas in Eastern Europe it evolved into the Epigravettian.