Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records. The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel.
Examples
Place Country/state Data sources Duration of the record, in years Conclusions Sources Approximate coordinates Actun Tunichil Muknal Belize Oxygen and carbon isotopes in a quickly growing stalagmite AD 1977 – 2000 Strong correlation of hits by named tropical cyclones with isotope ratio variations Amur Bay Russia Sediments from floods 1,800 Low storm activity in the last 500 years, probably correlated to the Little Ice Age but continuing into the 19th and 20th century Angliers PondFloridaLake sedimentsAD 1920Three storm deposits, linked presumably to Hurricane Donna, Great Miami Hurricane and 1921 Tampa Bay hurricane Anle Atoll ChinaAtoll overwash600Increased storm activity during the Little Ice Age Ara River Japan River terraces formed by typhoon flooding 11,600 Intense flooding during the late glacial to 5,000 – 4,500 years ago indicate increased typhoon activity, followed by a period of less intense activity until about 2,350 years ago Bay Jimmy Louisiana Seafloor sediments 1,200 years Four intense storms, including two recent ones Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Sediments in a coastal lagoon 5,000 Inactive period between 2,500 – 1,500 years, preceded and followed by more active periods Basin Bayou Florida Overwash and inundation deposits 2,000 Over twice as active as today 900–1050 CE, with less activity 250 - 650 CE and 1150 - 1850 CE Belize, central Belize Overwash deposits 5001.2-1 catastrophic storms per century including one very strong storm before 1500AD Belize, south-central Belize Sediments 7,000 Several active periods, between 6,900 – 6,700, 6,050 – 5,750, 5,450 – 4,750, 4,200 – 3,200, 2,600 – 1,450 and 600 – 200 years ago Big Pine Key Florida Tree ring evidence of storm damageAD 1700–present Decreased activity correlated to decreased shipwreck rates in the Maunder Minimum Blackwood Sinkhole Bahamas Sand deposits in sinkhole 3,000 A stage without intense storms between 2,900 – 2,500 years ago, followed by an active period that lasted until 1,000 years ago. Two intense events about 500 years ago and an increase between 300 – 100 years ago Brigantine, New Jersey New Jersey Sediments1,500Two strong storms between 600–700 and 700–1,400 AD; nor'easters are also recorded here Cabo Rojo Puerto RicoLagoon sediments1,300Six storms: H6 between 1,000-1,200 years ago, H5 about 1150 AD, H4 (the most meaningful) in the early 17th century, H3 possibly Hurricane Inez, H2 possibly Hurricane Georges and H1 likely Hurricane Maria Cenote Chaltun Ha Yucatan Mud layers in speleothems AD 365 – 2007 Frequent flooding during the 7th, 9th and 19th century with less common flooding during the 13th and 15–17th centuries. Also, evidence of strong tropical cyclone strikes during the Terminal Classic Maya Commerce Bight Lagoon Belize Sediment cores 7,000 Active periods between 600 and 200, 1,450 – 2,600, 3,200 – 4,200, 4,750 – 5,450, 5,750 – 6,050 years ago Charlotte Harbor Florida Sediments8,000Increased activity between 3,000 – 2,000 years ago and also during El Nino-leaning periods Chassahowitzka RiverFloridaSediment cores3,000Shell layers 2,000, 1,260 and 1,130 years ago Chaungtha Myanmar Washover deposits Cyclone Mala and two older tropical cyclonesChenier PlainLouisianaSediments in coastal plain6007 hurricanes with category 3 or more intensity are known in the last 600 years, giving a frequency of 1.2 storms per century. Among the storms are Hurricane Audrey and Hurricane Rita Chezzetcook Inlet Nova Scotia Sediment analysis 1,000 Potential storm deposits at 1200 AD, AD 1831 and AD 1848, the middle of which is correlated to a major storm; also an inactive phase in the 1950s and 1970s Codrington LagoonBarbudaSediment analysis3,700Hurricane Irma is the only storm linked to a breach in the lagoon, although other previous hurricanes produced overwash deposits Cowley Beach QueenslandBeach ridges5,740Low activity between 1,820 – 850 and 2,580 – 3,230 years ago Croatan National Forest North Carolina Tree rings AD 1771 – 2014 Low activity in 1815–1875 Culebrita Puerto Rico Sediment deposits 2,200 Several sand layers may correlate to hurricanes, including one perhaps linked to the 1867 San Narciso hurricane Curacoa Island Queensland Beach ridges 6,000 22 hits by intense storms in 6,000 years, implying return periods of 280 years De Soto National Forest Mississippi Tree rings 1540–2012 CE Reconstruction of annual tropical cyclone rainfall totals, which exhibits a decrease after a major volcanic eruption. Presently the oldest paleohurricane reconstruction using tree rings. DurbanSouth AfricaSubmarine depositsHoloceneIncreased storminess during the early Holocene and during times with strong Indian Ocean Dipole activity Duri Island South Korea Shell-gravel deposits1,300Storms in 720 ± 60, 880 ± 110, 950 ± 70, 995 ± 120 and 1535 ± 40, the latter occurring during the Little Ice Age and the others during the Medieval Climate Anomaly EshanessBritish Isles Boulders perched on cliffs 1,400Probably not tropical cyclones, but intense storm activity occurred since AD 1950, between 1,300 and 1,900 AD, 700–1,050 AD and 400 – 550 AD Exmouth Gulf Australia, northwestern Washover fans 3,000 Tropical cyclone strikes took place 170 – 180 ± 16, 360 ± 30, 850 – 870 ± 60, 1,290 – 1,300 ± 90, 1,950 – 1,960 ± 90, 2,260 – 2,300 ± 120 and 2,830 – 2,850 ± 120 years ago, consistent with expectations based on sea surface temperature variations Falso Bluff Marsh NicaraguaSediment deposits5,400Last 800 years have an active climate with a return period of about 140–180 years, while between 800 and 2,800 the return period was only once between 600 and 2,100 years and another quiet period between 4,900 – 5,400 years ago; between 2,800 and 4,900 no records Folly Island South Carolina Back-barrier marshes 4,600 The last 4,600 years may have seen 27 storms, as well as 11 major storms in the last 3,300 years Frankland Islands Queensland Coastal ridges and coral mortality 510 Active periods are known from 1980 to 2000, 1940–1960, 1860–1880, 1800–1830, 1760–1780, 1700–1720, 1630–1650, 1570–1590 France France Tempestites Kimmeridgian Intense tropical cyclone activity from storms coming off the Tethys Inapplicable Gales Point Belize Sediment cores5,500In the last 5,500 years 16 major hurricanes Galveston BayTexasSediment cores1,820One hurricane about 1,000 years ago which caused major flooding Grand CaseSt. MartinSediments4,280Active period between 3,700 – 1,800 years ago, while 1,800 –800 years ago was inactive Grape Tree Pond Jamaica Sediments 900-2,011 ADSubdued activity between 900-1350 and after 1950AD during the recent warm periods and Medieval Climate Anomaly, with increased activity during the Little Ice Age Great Bahama Bank Bahamas Coarse sediment deposits 7,000 Active periods occurred within the last 50 years, between 1,200 and 500 years ago, 2,400 – 1,800 years ago and 4,600 – 3,800 years ago, with low activity before 4,400 years Great Blue Hole Belize Overwash deposits 1,885 Active periods between 800 and 500, 1,300 – 900 or 650 – 1,200 years ago and coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period Gulf of Carpentaria AustraliaBeach ridges7,500Low activity/intensity between 5,500 and 3,500, 2,700–1,800 and 1,000–500 years ago, the former coinciding with the Neoglacial Gulf of Thailand Thailand Beach ridges and a coastal marsh 8,000 18 typhoon strikes in the last 8,000 years, with increased activity in the mid-Holocene until 3,900 years ago (2–5 times more storms) either due to a warmer climate or higher sea level induced better sensitivity to storms Hainan Island China Deposits in lakes 350 1–2 typhoons per decade, with higher solar activity, positive Pacific Decadal Oscillation, La Nina and positive North Atlantic Oscillation correlating with decreases Hainan Island China Coastal dunes 3,400 8 storms in 1095 ± 90 BC, 900–1000 BC, 975 ± 50 AD, 1720 ± 20 AD, 1740 ± 35 AD, 1790 ± 25 AD, 1850 ± 15 AD, and 1895 ± 10 AD High Atlas Morocco Tempestite Toarcian Increased tropical cyclone activity during the hot Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic EventInapplicable Cay Sal BankBahamasSubaqueous sediments530On average 18.7-20.6 category 1+ storms per century. 34 storms between 770 to 1870 CE, only 8 between 1916 and 2016 Ilan Plain Taiwan River erosion sediments in a lake2,000 Between 500 – 700 and after AD 1400 intense typhoon rainfall Israel Israel Oxygen isotope ratios in rocks Cretaceous-Miocene Intense tropical cyclone activity in the Tethys until its closure 20 million years agoInapplicableJaluitMarshall IslandsBlue hole sediments3,000Peak activity during the Little Ice Age, with only one recent storm (Typhoon Ophelia) Jiangsu China Tidal flat deposits 2,000 ENSO and ITCZ influences; anticorrelation between Japan/Korea and SE China typhoon activity and decreased activity during the last two millennia Jobos BayPuerto RicoSediment cores3,700Inconsistent links to ENSO activity; active period between 2,300-1,200 years ago, and a deposit from Hurricane Maria Kamikoshiki-jimaJapanSediments in coastal lagoons6,400Higher typhoon activity at the time of the Kamikaze typhoons, with high activity between 3,600 – 2,500 and between 1,000 – 300 years ago Island Bay Florida Overwash deposits 1,000 3–4 storms in the last 500 years, 1–2 in 150 – 500 years before present and 11 storms between 1,000 – 500 years ago, all probably major hurricanes; one of the storms in the last 50 years is Hurricane Donna while the other might either be 1926 Miami hurricane, 1910 Cuba hurricane or the 1873 Central Florida Hurricane Kimberley Australia Flood deposits in stalagmites 2,200Moderate activity between 1,450 – 850 AD and low activity between 500 – 850 and 1,450 – 1,650 AD Lady Elliot Island Queensland Beach ridges 3,200 Strong storms (at least Category 4 or Category 5) occur every 253 years Laguna Alejandro Dominican RepublicSediment analysis910Strikes 910, 800, 730, 530, 500, 330, 260, 210, 200 and 170 years ago Laguna NegraNicaraguaDeposits in a coastal lake8,000One very strong storm ("Hurricane Elisenda") 3,340 ± 50 years ago, at the same time as increased storm activity in Alabama and Florida Laguna Madre Texas Storm deposits 3350 BC–AD 1050 0.46% probability of landfall any given year Laguna Playa Grande Puerto Rico Overwash sediments 5,000 0.48% probability of landfall any given year, but an active period in the last 250 years and previous active periods between 2,500 – 1,000 and 3,600 – 5,400 years ago. El Nino is linked with lower activity, a strong West African Monsoon with higher activity Lake DaijaJapanSediments in a coastal lagoon2,000Beginning at 250 AD increased activity, while a quiet period has lasted from 1600 AD to today. Typhoon Jean, Typhoon Grace and others have been identified, including two deposits that may correlate to the Kamikaze typhoons which also coincide within an active period. Recorded storms appear to be of category 3 or higher strengthLake Kogare-IkeJapanSediments in a lake3,000Mostly tsunamis, but also the 1959 Isewan typhoon Lake Shelby Alabama Storm deposits4,800 11 intense storms between 3,500 and 700 years ago, a quiet period before 3,200 radiocarbon years ago may be either a stage of inactivity or a change in the lake environment. Comparisons to Hurricane Frederic and Hurricane Ivan imply that the intense storms reached category 4 or 5 intensity Lake Tiriara Cook Islands Minerals from simultaneous seawater intrusion and island erosion 3,500Two storms between 3,200 – 2,800 and 200 years ago Lantau Island Hong Kong Marine sediments1,200Increased storm intensity during the Medieval Warm Period, with more but possibly weaker storms during the Little Ice Age and an increase in storm intensity after it Li'an BayChinaLagoon sediments1,600Increased activity 405-700, 980–1270, 1520–1850 and 1860–2015 CE Lingyang Reef South China Sea St