Sahib Giray’s campaigns to Circassia (1539–1551), also known as the Crimean–Circassian War of 1539–1551, were a series of large-scale military expeditions conducted by the Crimean Khanate under Sahib I Giray against various Circassian principalities in the North Caucasus. The campaigns aimed to reassert Crimean authority over Circassian territories, suppress resistance, and secure tribute, while also strengthening the khan’s position within the Crimean political system and in the eyes of the Ottoman Empire.
The expeditions resulted in widespread devastation among several Circassian principalities, including the Zhane, Bzhedugs, Kabardians, and Hatuqays, but failed to bring Circassia under lasting Crimean control. Despite reports of victory sent to Istanbul, continued Circassian resistance, ongoing raids, and internal opposition within the Crimean elite undermined Sahib Giray’s position. The aftermath of the campaigns coincided with Sahib Giray’s overthrow and assassination in 1551 and contributed to a shift in regional power dynamics, including the emergence of a Russo–Circassian alliance.
Background After the fall of the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate emerged as the most successful of the post-Golden Horde states. It survived for more than two centuries longer than the Kazan Khanate and the Astrakhan Khanate, and also took part in the destruction of the Great Horde and Astrakhan. Before recognizing Ottoman suzerainty in 1475, the Crimean khans pursued an independent policy, but even after becoming Ottoman vassals they skillfully used Ottoman political, military, and technological support to expand their influence in the northern Black Sea region and the North Caucasus. In 1475, the Ottomans captured a bridgehead on the Caucasian side of the Taman Peninsula Strait without the participation of Crimean forces. This was followed in 1479 by a large Ottoman expedition led by Gedik Ahmed Pasha, which deliberately invaded Circassia and devastated Anapa and Kopa. Between 1516 and 1519, the Ottomans, with the support of the Crimean army, constructed two major fortresses on the Shah’s Islands near Taman and Temryuk. After this, a long pause occurred in Ottoman–Crimean expansionist policy in Circassia.
In 1532, Sahib I Giray ascended the Crimean throne in Bakhchisarai. He became known for an active foreign policy based on close cooperation with the Ottoman Empire. Under his rule, the Crimean Khanate developed into a strong military power, equipped with field artillery and rifle units (tüfenkçi). Sahib Giray also created a personal guard of slaves modeled on the Ottoman Janissaries. His most notable military actions were his campaigns against Circassia, aimed at strengthening Crimean and Ottoman influence in the North Caucasus. These campaigns weakened the Circassian principalities and pushed them to seek support from the Muscovite state, marking a major shift in regional politics.
According to A. M. Nekrasov, the renewal of Ottoman expansion in the region was also connected to conflicts with Safavid Iran. In 1538, after a series of setbacks, the army of Tahmasp I captured Derbent for the first time, entering the Caspian North Caucasian plain and threatening Ottoman interests not only in Transcaucasia but also in the North Caucasus. Campaigns Zhane–Elbrus campaign (1539) In 946 AH (May–June 1539), the first expedition of Sahib I Giray into Circassia took place. Ottoman sources claim that the campaign was launched to punish Circassians who had raided Taman; however, it is possible that the real motive was to satisfy Ottoman and Crimean demand for slaves. According to Umdetü't Tevarih, the Circassians who attacked Taman were “Lower” Circassians allied with the Kabardians.
The khan’s army was fully supported by the Ottomans and led by the Sanjakbeyi of the Kefe Eyalet, Khalil Bey, who provided a flotilla and personally accompanied the khan. The army sailed to the fortress of Temryuk, where several Circassian princes appealed to Sahib Giray and promised to hand over those responsible for the raid on Taman. Subsequently, hundreds of Circassians, including nobles, joined the rearguard of the Crimean army, which now numbered around 40,000 men, and marched toward Mount Tkhab. During the advance, the local prince of Zhane, Kansavuk, was captured by the khan, who held him responsible for failing to prevent the raid on Taman. Sahib Giray ordered Kansavuk to be executed with 10,000 lashes, but Circassians appealed to Khalil Bey for intervention. They promised 20 slaves to Khalil Bey, 100 to the Crimean khan, and 200 to the Ottoman sultan, resulting in Kansavuk’s pardon.
The khan then marched toward the foothills of Mount Elbrus, possibly reaching the area of Mount Fisht. In an unspecified Circassian region, the inhabitants began fleeing their villages, many of which were subsequently burned by the Crimean army. During this phase, a notorious robber was captured and interrogated by the khan. The captive informed Sahib Giray that Circassians had prepared defensive trenches with stakes along the banks of the Kuban River and offered to guide the army there. Owing to the difficult terrain and the lack of local knowledge among Circassians serving in the khan’s forces, Sahib Giray accepted the offer.
The khan selected 10,000 of his best troops and marched toward the village of Orgun. According to V. Ostapchuk, Orgun was likely located in the upper Kuban region, while S. Kh. Khotko places it near the Guzeripl Pass and identifies its population as Ubykhs. Baba Beg, bey of the Shirin tribe, was left behind to guard the camp.
The guide deliberately led the army into extremely difficult terrain. Exhausted and unable to force a decisive engagement, the khan was compelled to retreat. Enraged, Sahib Giray personally executed the guide by beheading him. During the withdrawal, large numbers of prisoners were taken; the khan refused any share of the captives for himself, leaving all spoils to his men. Only Circassians who converted to Islam were spared. Despite this, the campaign ended without a decisive battle and produced inconclusive results. Патриаршая или Никоновская летопись. С. 101.
Zhane campaign (1542)
In 1542, Sahib Giray launched another campaign against the Circassian tribe of Zhane. Like the 1539 expedition, this campaign was conducted on the order of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and was supported by Khalil Bey, sanjakbey of Kefe. The immediate causes of the campaign were Zhane raids on Taman and the refusal of the Zhane prince Kansavuk to pay tribute.
The Ottoman–Crimean army reportedly numbered around 20,000 men. Upon learning of the khan’s approach, the Circassians divided their forces into detachments and fortified themselves behind defensive ditches. Their army is said to have numbered between 10,000 and 15,000 men, a figure likely exaggerated. Accompanied by a fleet of approximately 300 ships, the army advanced toward Temryuk. In an attempt to intimidate the Circassians, Sahib Giray ordered a demonstration of force, firing 30 cannons and around 3,000 rifle shots. Ottoman historian Remmal Khodja described the event as follows:
“The earth trembled so violently, as if Mount Elbrus were shaking. [The residents] of the remote areas of Zhane, hearing the volleys of arquebuses and cannons, did not know where to hide or what to do. And so Kansavuk heard this [the thunder of cannons]. [The khan was] three days’ journey away, and he lost his head and his complexion changed from horror, his soul was torn.” Fearing direct confrontation, Kansavuk attempted to avert the campaign by offering 500 slaves to the Crimean khan and 1,000 to the Ottoman sultan. The attempt failed: Sahib Giray ordered the envoys to be stripped and flogged with 3,000 lashes, while two of them had their ears and noses cut off before being sent back to Kansavuk. Upon their return, Kansavuk was publicly denounced by his followers as incompetent, and widespread desertion followed, leaving him with only around 2,000 men. Despite this collapse, a group of Zhanes launched a night attack on the khan’s camp. The attackers were defeated, encircled, and either killed or captured. The prisoners were brought before Sahib Giray and informed him of Kansavuk’s abandonment by his forces. The khan rewarded those who captured them and continued his advance toward Kansavuk’s position.
The following morning, the Crimean forces discovered a defensive ditch and maneuvered around it, surrounding the Circassians from the rear and driving them toward the mountains. According to contemporary accounts, the Circassian forces were destroyed in less than an hour, with Kansavuk escaping with only one or two companions. After the battle, Tatar forces ravaged Zhane lands for 75 days, capturing approximately 50,000 civilians and around 100 murzas. The captured murzas were later exchanged for slaves. Campaign to Kabardia (1545)
In 1545 Tatars this time led a campaign to Kabardia (eastern Circassia). Некрасов А. М. Международные отноше ния и народы Западного Кавказа. С. 104. The reason for the campaign was Circassian prince Elbozdu, who was defeated in a power struggle with his unnamed cousin and fled to Crimea, asking the khan for help. Elbozdu also informed the khan that Kansavuk had fled to Kabardia with 100–200 people and was planning on capturing Azov. Another reason for the campaign may have been that the Circassians had captured Astrakhan and placed Akkubek on the Astrakhan throne for the second time shortly before the campaign.
During the campaign, the Kabardians were supported by the Bzhedugs, one of the most militant tribes of the Caucasus who reportedly mobilized an army of 10,000 against the khan. Thus, the khan marched to Kabardia in the autumn of 1545. The khan's army advanced through Perekop and Azov and, after three days of marching, settled near a "large river". After a short time, the khan continued his march for five more days and arrived in Kabardia. There, the khan summoned his son Emin Giray Sultan and entrusted him with the command of the plunder, while ordering that the soldiers not be allowed to disperse and to be careful at night. Elbozdu was appointed as the guide of the army. The khan's army approached the Malka River at a time when a sufficient number of Kabardian reapers and their guards had not yet gathered. The Tatars slaughtered the reapers; among the casualties were 40–50 beys. Bzhedug scouts climbed a high mountain and observed that the khan commanded an army of 60,000–70,000 men. After consultations, the Circassian princes decided to exchange the captured beys for slaves and prepare a night attack against the khan. When the envoy arrived, the khan accepted their request and gave them time to deliver the slaves. However, Elbozdu—suspected by the Circassians—warned the khan that an attack might occur at night. As a result, the khan marched further and stationed his army on the banks of the Belkh River. There, the khan pitched his tent on a high hill. In the distance, soldiers spotted Circassian forces, and when evening fell, the khan ordered the tent to be taken down and trenches to be dug. He ordered his troops to stand ready. The Tatar warriors formed a circle around their horses; each prepared his rifle, ammunition, quiver, and sword. Later, the Circassians arrived, planning first to capture the khan, believing this would cause the Tatar army to flee. Shouting together, ten thousand Circassians—waving bayonets and abandoning their horses—entered the Tatar camp, but fell into the trenches. Those at the front collapsed, and the Tatars began shooting at them. Despite attempts to escape, none survived, while the remaining Circassians fled. According to Ottoman sources, not a single Tatar was killed or wounded in the battle.