The Ternatean–Portuguese conflicts were a series of conflicts in the Spice Islands in eastern Indonesia between the Portuguese and their allies on one hand, and the Sultanate of Ternate and its allies, on the other. Hostilities broke out from time to time after the establishment of Portugal in Moluccas in 1522.Abdjan Jahja et al. (2012) Sejarah sosial kesultanan Ternate. Yogyakarta: Ombak, p. 73-6. The strongly Catholic and Muslim identities of the combatants gave the struggle elements of a war of religion, although this aspect was frequently blurred by cross-faith alliances. It was also an economic war since the Portuguese aim was to control export of the profitable trade in cloves. Portuguese-Ternatean rivalry later merged with attempts of expansion by the Spaniards in the Philippines. The Portuguese were eventually defeated in 1605 by an alliance between the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Ternate, ending their active involvement in Moluccas affairs. However, they were soon replaced by the Spanish who maintained an Iberian presence in the region up to 1663.
Context The Sultanate of Ternate was the most powerful realm in the Moluccas by the early 16th century and handled much of the lucrative spice trade. However, its position was always insecure, due to the presence of three other sultanates, Tidore, Jailolo, and Bacan. When the Portuguese conquered the vital trading entrepot Malacca in 1511, this had consequences for the trade in cloves that had largely flowed via Malacca. The Moluccan sultanates were therefore interested in befriending the Portuguese who appeared in Moluccan waters from 1512. Sultan Bayan Sirrullah of Ternate invited the foreigners to his islands. A fort, São João Baptista, was constructed at the south coast of Ternate, near the sultan's seat, around 1522.
Early clashes (1530–1557) However, the manners of the Portuguese garrison and efforts to regulate the spice trade soon led to dissatisfaction. The political situation was further complicated by the neighbouring island Tidore that allied with the Spaniards, who showed up in the Moluccas from time to time.C. F. van Fraassen (1987) Ternate, de Molukken en de Indonesische Archipel. Leiden: Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden, Vol. I, p. 38.
A first crisis erupted in 1530 when the Portuguese captain arrested and executed the Ternatan regent Darwis on unproven accusations of treason. The mother of the young Sultan Dayal reacted by withdrawing to a fortified place on the island, and forbade the people to deliver foodstuff to São João Baptista. The crisis ended when a new captain, Gonçalo Pereira arrived to Ternate, and a temporary reconciliation took place.
A series of new sieges of the fort followed. The Ternateans temporarily allied with Tidore, Bacan, and the Papuan Islands to maintain the blockade. With no hope for relief, the Portuguese agreed to release Sultan Dayal, who had effectively been kept prisoner and thus peace was restored.
New disturbances soon surfaced. The new captain Vicente de Fonseca began to plot with the Ternatean grandee Pati Sarangi to get rid of the young monarch. The plans were discovered, however, and Dayal and his mother escaped to Tidore in 1533, where his maternal uncle Sultan Mir ruled. He later proceeded to Jailolo at safe distance from the Portuguese.Leonard Andaya (1993). The world of Maluku. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, p. 120-1.
1535-1537 revolt The fugitive Dayal was active in fomenting a new alliance with the rulers Mir of Tidore, Alauddin I of Bacan and Katarabumi of Jailolo, in order to regain his throne. The new Ternatean regent Samarau also sympathized with the alliance. By now, the Portuguese were badly cornered in their fortress.C. F. van Fraassen (1987), Vol. I, p. 39-40. At this moment, in October 1536, a relief armada appeared from Malacca with a new captain, António Galvão. The capable Galvão, accompanied by 170 Portuguese and 120 dependents led an attack on the fortification of the four allies in Tidore. The allies were well equipped with 5-600 firearms, cuirasses, coats of mail, helmets and swords which had been taken from the Portuguese or received from the Spaniards.Hubert Jacobs (1971) A treatise on the Moluccas (c. 1544). Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, pp. 241-3. In spite of this the invasion was completely successful, and the defenders were pushed back on 21 December. Dayal was severely wounded in the fighting and died soon after.Willard A. Hanna & Des Alwi (1990), Turbulent times past in Ternate and Tidore. Banda Naira: Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Naira, p. 61. The allied kings had to agree on peace with the Portuguese.C. F. van Fraassen (1987), Vol. I, p. 40.
Heightened tension under Hairun (1557–1570)
At this time, a brother of Dayal called Hairun was Sultan and, as such, dependent on the Portuguese. During his long reign (1535–1570) he oscillated between enmity and friendship with the Portuguese. A rift appeared in 1557 since the latter confiscated the clove harvest from Makian and imprisoned the Sultan for security reasons. The enraged Ternatean chiefs now allied with the Sultan of Tidore and attacked the positions of the Portuguese. Eventually the Portuguese found reason to depose the captain of their garrison and release Hairun. The parties then arrived to an agreement. Hairun and his son Baab signed a letter of vassalage which is the oldest preserved letter with seals in Indonesia.Annabel Teh Gallop (2019) Malay seals from the Islamic world of Southeast Asia. Singapore: NUS Press, Nos 1836-1837.
Nevertheless, Hairun encouraged attacks against Christian settlements that took a high toll in human lives. In the 1560s he sent war fleets, with participation from his son Baab, to help up the Muslim positions in Ambon where Catholic missionaries had been successful. The Muslims of Hitu in northern Ambon were supported both by Hairun and Javanese troops from Jepara and were successful for a while.Hubert Jacobs (1974) Documenta Malucensia. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, Vol. I, p. 502. The Portuguese left Ambon to its fate for several years, though they eventually came back to build a new stronghold in 1569. Since the Sultan was active in the waterways, he could harass the vital deliveries of foodstuff from Moro in Halmahera to the Portuguese settlement and garrison in Ternate.P. A. Tiele (1877-1887), "De Europëers in den Maleischen Archipel", Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Part IV:5, p. 441-3.
Siege of Ternate (1570–1575) The Portuguese captain Diogo Lopes de Mesquita eventually ordered the assassination of Hairun in February 1570. This act immediately triggered a violent uprising under his son Baab or Babullah who was proclaimed Sultan on Hiri Island, north of Ternate, and waged a holy war against the Portuguese.C. F. van Fraassen (1987), Vol. I, p. 40. The traditional rival Tidore sided with the Ternateans. The fortress São João Baptista was encircled although the garrison was able to hold out for years. A Portuguese relief fleet approached Ternate later in the same year and was met by a large Ternatan and Tidorese fleet of korakoras (outriggers geared for warfare). A sea battle followed where the Sultan of Tidore was wounded in the leg, while the Portuguese managed to break through and reach the fort.Artur Basilio de Sá (1956) Documentação para a história das missões Padroado portugues do Oriente, Vol. IV, p. 462. However, the Portuguese position was still precarious. Moreover, Babullah's fleets carried out devastating raids on the Christianized villages of the Moro population in Halmahera. His captains also fought the Portuguese and their allies in Ambon, with mixed success. The Ternateans managed to subjugate Hoamoal (in Seram), Ambelau, Manipa, Kelang, and Boano. The Portuguese troops under the command of captain Sancho de Vasconcellos could keep their Ambonese fortress with great difficulty, and lost much of their grip over the trade in cloves.Gerrit Knaap (2004) Kruidnagelen en Christenen: De VOC en de bevolking van Ambon 1656-1696. Leiden: KITLV Press, p. 17-9.
For five years the Portuguese and their families endured a harsh blockade on São João Baptista, cut off from the outside world. Sultan Babullah finally gave an ultimatum to leave Ternate within 24 hours. Those who were indigenous in Ternate were allowed to remain on condition that they become royal subjects. The current captain Nuno Pereira de Lacerda accepted the conditions, since the prospects of further resistance were entirely hopeless. Thus, on 15 July 1575, some Portuguese left Ternate and others were allowed to remain as merchants. Babullah showed a measure of moderation, considering the importance of Portuguese Malacca for the spice trade. He allowed Portuguese merchants to still trade and that the prices in cloves were to remain as they had been. Formally, the Sultan vowed to keep the fortress only until his father's murderers had been punished, although he did not actually consider giving up his conquest. A small group of Portuguese remained in Ternate, as hostages. A Portuguese relief armada, arriving too late to change the course of things, took most of the Portuguese on board and sailed over to Ambon where they strengthened the local garrison.P. A. Tiele IV:6, p. 455-6.
Tidorean-Portuguese alliance (1578–1605)
The triumph of Babullah nevertheless evoked anxiety among other political players in the region. The Sultan of Tidore, Gapi Baguna, feared for the hegemony of his victorious neighbor and contacted the Portuguese in Ambon in 1576. Although Babullah discovered his scheming and took him prisoner for a while, he could not stop the Portuguese-Tidorese alliance to take form. A Ternatean invasion of Tidore was carried out, and although Babullah's troops had some success and nearly succeeded in killing Sancho de Vasconcellos, the Portuguese were able to construct a fort on the east side of Tidore in early 1578.Artur Basilio de Sá (1956), Vol. IV, p. 350, 367. It was a strategical arrangement, and there was little love lost between the Portuguese and Tidorese.Jose M. Escribano-Páez (2020) "Diplomatic gifts, tributes and frontier violence: Circulation of contentious presents in the Moluccas (1575–1606)", Diplomatica 2, p. 259. The new Portuguese stronghold, Fort Reis Magos, was situated north of the later Tidorese capital Soasiu.Simon Pratt, "The forts of the Spice Islands of Indonesia, today" Although relatively modest, it was sufficient to deter Ternatean aims. Another problem for Babullah was the Bacan Sultanate whose ruler Dom João was a baptized Christian. Although he forced Dom João to give up his Portuguese leanings in about 1575 and poisoned the ruler two years later, Babullah always had to count on the clandestine hostility of the Bacanese.C. Wessels (1929) "De Katholieke missie in het Sultanaat Batjan (Molukken), 1667-1609", Historisch Tijdschrift 8:2 and 8:3. On the whole, Babullah was nevertheless an extremely successful ruler who expanded his realm in all directions in eastern Indonesia and was known as the Lord of Seventy-two Islands. Islam served as a formidable anti-Portuguese uniting force, and its dissemination accelerated.Robert Cribb (2000) Historical atlas of Indonesia. Richmond: Curzon, p. 103.