Theatre in Croatia refers to the history of the performing arts in Croatia, or theatrical performances written, acted and produced by Croatians. Croatian theatre generally falls into the Western theatre tradition, with influences especially from Italy, Germany, Austria and other European nations.

Croatian theatre dates back at least as far as the Middle Ages, with a combination of religious liturgical dramas, and secular performances of travelling entertainers. During the Renaissance, there was a flowering of dramatic writing and performances in Dalmatia, especially in Dubrovnik and on the island of Hvar. Notable playwrights of the time were Marin Držić and Hanibal Lucić.

In other parts of Croatia, theatres started to appear in the late 18th, early 19th century in cities such as Split, Dubrovnik, Šibenik, Zadar, Osijek, Varaždin, Pula, Rijeka, and Zagreb. The development of a Croatian National Theatre evolved from Zagreb's first city theatre on St Mark's Square. Beginning in the 1860s, performances were increasingly written and given in Croatian.

Today, Croatia boasts a strong tradition of theatres and theatrical companies all round the country. Performances range from dramas and musicals for adults or children, youth theatre and puppet theatre. Croatia is also home to the world's oldest Theatre of the Blind. Festivals are held in several locations in the summer.

History Classical

The very first theatre venues in today's Croatia were built during the Roman period. The remains of a Classical theatre can be seen in ancient Salona near Split, and in Pula there are remains of a smaller Roman theatre, both dating from the 1st century.

Medieval plays

The first evidence of theatrical performances in Croatia refers to liturgical scenes that formed part of the mass celebration in medieval churches. Mostly anonymous and initially only Latin texts, they presented dialogues between biblical or saintly characters. At first these were sung or chanted by priests, but later by lay people at the altar or in parts of the church that served as a stage. In the oldest ritual of the Zagreb Cathedral from the 11th century, two Latin liturgical dramas have been preserved, the Easter Visitatio sepulchri and the Epiphany Tractus stellae, and in the Vrbnica Missal from 1462 there is a fragment written in Glagolitic in the Old Church Slavonic Croatian edition. From these liturgical scenes, other secular religious dramas developed: miracles (legends of the saints), passion (sufferings of Jesus and the saints), and morality (Christian teaching).

Along with the liturgical dramas, there were secular performances, associated with travelling musicians and entertainers who would perform at public events such as weddings, church holidays, or carnival processions.

Renaissance theatre The renaissance saw the first organized theatrical events given by named authors, mostly in the literary centres of Dubrovnik and Hvar, but also to some extent in Korčula and in public performances in Zagreb (in Latin). The Renaissance theatre brought a flourishing of dramatic literature.

Born in Dubrovnik, then known as the Republic of Ragusa, Marin Držić is considered to be one of the finest renaissance authors in Croatian literature His work covers many fields: lyric poetry, pastorals, political letters and pamphlets, and comedies. While his pastorals (Tirena, Venera i Adon and Plakir) are still highly regarded as masterful examples of the genre, his comedies are among the best in European Renaissance literature. Držić's comedies are full of exuberant life and vitality, celebrating love, liberty and sincerity and mocking avarice, egoism and petty tyrants — both in the family and in the state. His best-known comedies include: Pomet (1548 or 1553), Novela od Stanca (1550), Dundo Maroje (1551 or 1556) – his best-known play which was also performed abroad, and Skup (1554)

Meanwhile, in Hvar, another important author of the Croatian renaissance was Hanibal Lucić who, as well as poetry, also wrote (The Slave Girl being the first secular play in Croatian literature). Also writing drama around this time were authors such as Mavro Vetranović, Nikola Nalješković, Martin Benetović, Dinko Zlatarić. The influence of Italian theatre was strong, which can be seen in the themes of the plays and the theatrical terminology. New, specially built indoor stages gave the actors more space to move around, and scenic backdrops introduced, suitable for tragic, comic or pastoral dramas. Some amateur theatre companies were founded.

In 1610, the oldest public theatre in Europe was opened in Hvar. Earlier Italian theatres such as the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (1584) were privately built, while the Hvar theatre, added as part of the reconstruction works to the Arsenal building, was financed by the commune for the people of Hvar. Modified over the years, it is still in existence serving the same purpose today.

Baroque theatre During the 17th century, theatrical performances were taking place throughout most of Croatia, but the main creative centre was still Dubrovnik. In addition to the old theatrical forms, new ones began to appear: melodrama and musical pastorals (Ivan Gundulić, Junije Palmotić) and te trionfe i anonimne komedije with influences of commedia dell'arte.

Music now took an increasing role, and some performances could almost be called operas. New stage design allowed for improved decor, costumes, and lighting, and even an increased number of performers. The equipment became more complex, and fantastic new stage effects designed for specific performances: mountains and seas which could be dismantled, angels or monsters would appear and disappear, gods come down from heaven. More demanding performances called for printed manuals (translated from the original Italian) to deal with the dynamic equipment and lighting fixtures.

One of the leading figures of the Dubrovnik literary scene was Ivan Gundulić, whose most famous play is Dubravka, a pastoral written in 1628, where he rhapsodises on the former glory of Dubrovnik and it contains some of the most famous verses in Croatian literature:

Croatian

O liepa, o draga, o slatka slobodo, dar u kom sva blaga višnji nam Bog je dô, uzroče istini od naše sve slave, uresu jedini od ove Dubrave, sva srebra, sva zlata, svi ljudcki životi ne mogu bit plata tvôj čistoj lipoti.

English

Fair liberty, beloved liberty, liberty sweetly avowed, thou are the treasured gift that God to us endowed, all our glory is thy true creation, to our Home thou are all the decoration, no silver nor gold, not life itself could replace the reward of thy pure and sublime grace.

Age of Enlightenment

During the 18th and early 19th centuries, performances took place in various venues and there was an increasingly professional approach to theatre. The lavishness of the Baroque performances continued with elaborate costumes and inventive stage solutions. The first theatrical programs were printed, and more cities were involved in theatrical life (Split, Trogir, Šibenik, Zadar, Senj, Rijeka, and Karlovac). Dubrovnik was still the core of dramatic creativity, but there was less original dramatic writing. In the northern part of Croatia, most of the theatrical productions were connected with the schools of certain priestly orders, for example the Jesuits in Zagreb, Varaždin, Požega, Osijek, and Rijeka, the Franciscans in Osijek, Slavonski Brod, and Vukovar, and the Paulines in Senj.

One of the first performances that was explicitly performed in Croatian was "Cyrus in solium vocatur" (Cirus Called to the Throne) in 1766.

Zagreb's first public theatre hall was part of the Kulmer-Pejačević palace, which is now the Croatian Natural History Museum at Demetrova 1. It had many of the characteristics of a public theatre, including tickets and publicity leaflets. Operating from 1797 to 1834, it was known as Amadeo's theatre after Count Antal Amade de Várkony county prefect of Zagreb. The theatre was rented exclusively to German companies, but in 1832 and 1833 German actors also performed several plays in Kajkavian.

Nationalism and city theatres

At the turn of the 19th century, dramatic performances in the Kajkavian dialect flourished, with the most important author being Tituš Brezovački, who wrote («Matijaš grabancijaš dijak», «Diogeneš»). In Dubrovnik, 23 plays by Molière were translated and performed, still unusual at the time. The best drama written in Croatian during the 18th century was "Kate Kapuralica" by Vlaha Stulli.

The beginning of the nineteenth century is also marked by the strong influence of German theatre, which can be seen in the theatrical terminology of the time, but also in the increasingly professional work habits and organization. Many Croatian actors and theatre workers gained their experience by watching guest performances by German theatre companies or they would travel to Germany and Austria to learn at first hand.

In 1834, the first real theatre space was opened on St. Mark's Square in Zagreb. The golden age of construction of theatre halls in Croatia came between 1859 and 1895, when large theatres were built in Split, Dubrovnik, Šibenik, Zadar, Osijek, Varaždin, Pula, Rijeka and Zagreb. Following that, theatrical life in Croatia gradually became more professionalized and despite a number of political and material difficulties, a single national theatre was formed, primarily due to the efforts of Dimitrije Demeter, August Šenoa and Stjepan Miletić.

Zagreb's first purpose-built city theatre was Stanković's Theatre (also known as the Old Theatre or the Theatre on St. Mark's Square). It was built by the merchant Kristofor Stanković, who had won 30,000 ducats in the Vienna lottery in 1833. He intended to rent the building to foreign companies, and it also contained a ballroom, which hosted a number of important sessions of the Parliament of Croatia.

The builders were father and son, Christofor and Anton Cragnolini. The theatre was designed with three rows of boxes surrounding the auditorium, and could accommodate more than 750 patrons. The stage covered approximately 200 m2, and at the same time served as a storage for the scenery backdrops. The orchestra was placed on a level with the audience. Lighting was originally candles, then from 1864 by gaslight, and after 1894 by electricity.

The first play, Körner's play Niklas Graf von Zriny, was performed by a German troupe on October 4, 1834. German and Italian theatrical troupes performed, but beginning in 1860, only Croatian plays were performed. Croatian was first heard in the theatre during an intermezzo of a German production, when Ljudevit Gaj's reveille "Još Hrvatska ni propala" was performed, and the first play in Croatian, the Juran and Sofia or The Turks under Sisak: Heroic Play in Three Acts () by Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, was performed there on 10 June 1840. The first Croatian opera, Love and Malice () by Vatroslav Lisinski, was also performed there on 28 March 1846.

Dimitrije Demeter, author of the patriotic epic "Grobničko polje" (Grobnik Plain) in 1842, laid the foundation for a new Croatian theatre, as manager and writer. His most important dramatic work "Teuta" (1844) draws on Illyrian history. Other writers of the time are Antun Nemčić, author of a drama called "Kvas bez kruha" (Yeast without bread). Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski was a politician, scientist, historian, and the first writer of plays based on more recent Croatian literature: "Juran i Sofija" (1839).

The old theatre building was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1880, and in 1881 the Croatian Parliament voted to construct a new theatre. The last performance was held in the old theatre on June 16, 1895. After the interior was renovated in 1895, the building was given a new administrative purpose as the City Hall, while the theatre moved to the new Fellner-Helmer building in the lower town that we know today as the Croatian National Theatre.