Prostitution in early modern England was defined by a series of attempts by kings, queens, and other government officials to prohibit people from working in the sex industry. There was an ebb and flow to the prohibition orders, which were separated by periods of indifference at various level of the English government. Areas like Southwark that had cultivated a reputation as a hub for prostitution and entertainment, originally outside of the jurisdiction of London, were incorporated into the city during the early modern period. Some illicit businesses in these areas continued to offer their services to interested patrons more discretely, but many brothels and related businesses reemerged in less conspicuous areas of London, disguised as other kinds of businesses.

Prostitutes represented a diverse range of economic and social classes in early modern England. Women entered the sex industry for various reasons, but the primary factor was poverty. This could refer to someone born into a lower class family, who turned to prostitution as a means of survival or to try to climb the social ranks, creating a better life for themselves. It could also include someone born into a family with a higher social class, who for a variety of reasons no longer enjoyed great wealth or status. There is no single, stereotypical version of a prostitute in early modern England.

The artwork used here depicts well-known works created by Dutch Golden Age artists. Many Dutch painters worked extensively in England. As a result, the artists were familiar with life in England, and their work was well known among the English educated class. The Dutch Golden Age artists favored scenes depicting more ordinary, every-day life, and the merry company paintings were a common genre of their work. They depict common settings and themes from taverns throughout Western Europe, during the early modern period, but they should not be treated as a literal depiction, specific only to England.

Historical background

Information about prostitution in England prior to the Roman conquest is scarce, but under Roman law, prostitution in England was licensed and regulated as a legal business. Although prostitution was legal, many prostitutes were slaves, and free prostitutes were denied the rights afforded to many other Roman citizens. Initially, there was minimal direct control by the Romans, but British culture, especially in southern England, was heavily influenced by Rome. Beginning in 43 AD, there were further attempts by Rome to conquer Britain and establish a more formalized ruling system. Direct Roman control in Britain continued until approximately 410 AD.

In medieval Europe, the regulation of prostitution was done with the primary goal of maintaining social order. The well-being provided by operating in a regulated market, compared to a black market, for people working in the sex industry was not a serious concern. Decisions about the regulation of prostitution in medieval England were largely carried out at the local level of government. Although, there were some exceptions. Prostitution was not legally recognized in most towns in England. Southwark was the exception, but the other cities and towns often did very little to seriously enforce their prohibition. In 1310, all brothels in London were ordered to be shut down by royal decree. By 1393, they were tolerated in the Cock's Lane district of the city. Stews (bath houses/ brothels) were outlawed in London in 1417 in an effort to prevent them from spreading from Southwark to the rest of the city. In 1506, 18 legal stews were ordered to be shut down in Southwark for a period of time, through an order issued by the central government of the king.

Prostitution and Christianity in Medieval Western Europe

Church teachings condemned the act of prostitution, and prostitutes were prohibited from burial in Christian cemeteries. Noted scholars and influential Christians, St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas both viewed prostitution as a necessary evil. St. Augustine stated, "if you do away with harlots, the world will be convulsed with lust," and "take away the sewer and you will fill the palace with pollution...take away prostitutes from the world and you will fill it with sodomy" is a quote that is attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas. Any sexual act not for purpose of procreation was classified as sodomy by the church.

In 1286, the church was officially granted the responsibility of punishing "sexual misdemeanors" by King Edward I, but secular courts increasingly prosecuted people for crimes relating to prostitution and the sex trade, beginning in the early modern period. The previous policies largely consisted of indifference, combined with half-hearted enforcement or restriction to certain quarters or streets of the city (Southwark), where it was regulated. Southwark was directly administered by the bishop of Winchester, and the church began to license and tax brothels as a source of revenue. Some brothels were even directly controlled by the bishop. Prostitutes conducting business in Southwark were often referred to as "Winchester Geese," a reference to the bishop of Winchester. There is some debate about when the church began to regulate prostitution in Southwark. Some sources claim this began in the early 15th century, with the bishop backdating his order to give it more legitimacy. Other sources claim the church did license prostitution as far back as the 12th century. Whichever accounting of history is correct, the fact that the church did very little to publicly discourage prostitution in Southwark, prior to the Tudor dynasty, is not disputed by either faction.

The policy shift to strict prohibition of prostitution, with increased enforcement and punishment by secular courts, coincided with England's transition to Protestantism. Other Western European countries, transitioning away from Catholicism, underwent a similar policy shift. Prostitutes had been primarily viewed within society as sinners, needing to be reformed and saved through the teachings of the Bible. Some Protestant leaders often portrayed prostitutes, not as lost souls needing guidance through Christ's teachings but as inherently immoral persons, needing to be condemned and punished. These views grew to be held more broadly throughout society by their followers. In 1583, a building in Southwark collapsed, killing several people and injuring many others who were inside at the time. The tragic event occurred on a Sunday, and some Puritans claimed it was a "judgement from God." The new social attitudes and government policies concerning prostitution pushed the industry underground, scattering hidden brothels throughout cities. Enforcement was difficult and often ineffective.

The shift from Catholicism to Protestantism coincides with a major outbreak of sexually transmitted diseases. The outbreak had a significant and negative impact on public health. It likely influenced Protestant attitudes towards prostitution, but the extent of that influence cannot be precisely known. The public generally blamed prostitutes for facilitating the outbreak, and they were shunned and sometimes publicly ridiculed and taunted.

Prostitution in Tudor England (1485–1603)

Henry VII

Brothels, during the reign of Henry VII, were often referred to as "stews". They were located in Southwark, on the South bank of the River Thames—across from London, between Maid Lane and Bankside. Southwark and London were connected by the London Bridge, the only permanent crossing for the Thames at that time. The location of the bridge likely played a role in the development of Southwark as a red-light district. Additionally, the region was known for bear and bull-baiting, as well as for its theaters and music halls. The Globe theater, famous for showing Shakespeare's plays, would eventually be built in Southwark later in the 16th century. One explanation for the term "stew" describing the bath houses and brothels in Southwark is that it originated from the stew ponds located near the bath houses, where the bishop of Winchester bred fish. Another explanation is that the name originates from the French word "estuwes", which means stove, as stoves were used to heat water at the bathhouses. In 1506 (or possibly 1503), cases of syphilis began to increase and King Henry VII shut down the "stews" in an attempt to reduce cases. However, the brothels were shut down for only a short period of time, and they eventually reopened for business. Another source cites 1503 as the year Henry VII ordered the brothels to be shut down.

Henry VIII and Edward VI

Henry VIII followed his father's order intended to shut down brothels and eliminate prostitution with new orders and regulations of his own. In 1513, he ordered that any woman caught soliciting an English soldier would be punished by having her face branded with a hot iron. Beginning in 1519, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey organized an effort to reduce prostitution around England's capital by searching for "unemployed men and loose women". There was an increased emphasis on enforcing laws against prostitution, where they existed, and harsher punishments and sentences were given to offenders. Previously, brothel keepers and prostitutes may have been fined for violating laws or regulations. These fines acted as an informal tax and revenue stream for the local governments. No real effort was made to eliminate the industry. Finally, in 1546, Henry VIII ordered that all brothels must be shut down, even those in Southwark. The prohibition order was the result of a confluence of events, including rising syphilis case numbers, efforts to reduce crime and restore law and order in areas with a high concentration of brothels, and changing social attitudes concerning prostitution. Brothel owners adapted to the situation by moving to more inconspicuous areas in London, disguising themselves as simple taverns. Most relocated to Cokkes Lane, Petticoat Lane, and Gropecunte Lane in Cheapside, but Southwark continued to be known as a place to go for illicit entertainment.

Henry VIII died in 1547, and his son Edward assumed the throne, as Edward VI, King of England and Ireland. Edward VI was only nine years old at the time of his coronation. He died before reaching the age of maturity, so England was governed by a regency council for the duration of his reign. In 1550, with John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick (later named 1st Duke of Northumberland) leading the regency council, Henry VIII's order to shut down the brothels in Southwark was reversed, but Southwark was officially incorporated into the city of London. Local government officials in London had long sought to control Southwark and rid it of prostitution and gambling.

Mary I

On the 24th of November, 1553, a priest, Sir Thomas Sothwood, who was given the alias of Parson Chekyn of St. Nicholas Cole Abbey in Olde Fish Street, was found guilty of offering men sex with his wife in exchange for money. Though parsons were not permitted to marry, some ignored church teachings and did so anyway, as Parson Chekyn had. He was punished by being made an example of, paraded through the streets of London in the ward of Queenhithe. He was made to ride around the city on a cart, as a means of shaming him.

In the last year of her reign, Queen Mary I sought to punish prostitutes and vagrants. She would have the disgraced run on a treadmill to generate power that was used to grind corn. Prostitutes would beat out hemp on a block with heavy wooden mallets. This would upset many men as they had fewer whores to choose from. On occasion raids would be mounted and prostitutes would be "liberated" and returned to prostitution.

Elizabeth I