South Africa's participation in the First World War occurred automatically when the British Government declared war on Germany in August 1914. Due to her status as a Dominion within the British Empire, South Africa, whilst having significant levels of self-autonomy, did not have the legal power to exercise an independent foreign policy and was tied to the British declaration.
Union between the British colonies and former Boer republics in Southern Africa had occurred just four years earlier, and South Africa did yet not possess a singular national identity nor united population. The years of peace following the Second Boer War (1899-1902) had not healed the deep and traumatic ethnic divisions between English-speakers and Afrikaners, whilst non-white racial groups increasingly found legalised discrimination being used against them for the benefit of whites.
The declaration of war was met with a wide variety of public opinion. Predominantly, English-speaking whites of typically of British descent were largely enthusiastic and strongly backed the mother country, volunteering in their tens of thousands. A minority of pro-republican Afrikaners, outraged by British influence over South Africa affairs, staged an armed rebellion against the Government in an attempt to establish an independent South Africa outside of the British Empire. Black South Africans were largely apathetic to the declaration of war. Although barred by racial legislation from being allowed to carry weapons, many still joined the National Labour Service, with thousands being deployed to France as non-combatants. Whilst some saw it as a purely 'white man's war', others were convinced that loyalty to the British Crown would be rewarded, and that political and economic freedoms would be granted once the war had been won by a grateful government. The South African Native National Congress, the forerunner of the African National Congress, publicly announced the cessation of law action against the government, pledging complete national support for the war effort.
Between 1914 and 1918, over 250,000 South Africans of all races, from a population of 6 million, volunteered to serve the Allied cause. Thousands more enlisted in the British Army directly, with over 3,000 joining the British Royal Flying Corps. More than 146,000 Whites, 83,000 Blacks, and 2,500 Coloureds and Indians fought in either German South West Africa, East Africa, the Middle East, or in Europe on the Western Front. Over 7,000 South Africans were killed, and 12,000 wounded, with eight South Africans being awarded the Victoria Cross. Two events have since become part of the nation's consciousness, and are still commemorated today - the Battle of Delville Wood and the sinking of the troopship SS Mendi.
Outbreak of war Following the British declaration of war against Germany on 4 August 1914, South Africa consequently was part of the conflict due to her status as a dominion within the British Empire. Although with significant levels of self-government, South Africa, along with other dominions such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, did not have the legal right to exercise an autonomous foreign policy separate to that of the United Kingdom.
It was seen by South African Prime Minister Louis Botha that the war offered an opportunity for territorial expansion, and that South Africa could possibly incorporate the small neighbouring colonies of Basutoland (Lesotho), Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Swaziland into the Union. German South-West Africa similarly proved a tempting aspiration. Defence Minister General Jan Smuts even mooted plans that should German East Africa be occupied, the territory could be used in negotiations with the Portuguese in exchange for the southern half of Mozambique. Such an agreement would allow the industrial region of the Transvaal to utilise the more immediate and adjacent ports of Beira and Lourenco Marques (Maputo) rather than Durban.
Although Britain refused to cede colonies to South Africa, and was equally reluctant to discuss any post-war territorial claims, Prime Minister Botha and General Smuts quickly became trusted and energetic members of the British Imperial War Cabinet. It was soon agreed with London that South Africa was able to adequately defend herself, and that British garrison forces could be withdrawn to fight in Europe. Further discussions acknowledged that South Africa would be well placed to mount an invasion of German South-West Africa, particularly to seize key naval installations and wireless communication centres.
South African politics and African nationalism
After the establishment of the Union, the first South African government was formed by the South African Party (SAP) which won 67 of the 121 parliamentary seats available in the 1910 election.Ian van der Waag (2012) "All splendid, but horrible: The Politics of South Africa's Second "Little Bit" and the War on the Western Front, 1915-1918", Scientia Militaria, volume 40, number 3, pp71–108 Led by the former Boer veteran Louis Botha, the SAP pursued a reconciliatory relationship with Britain, was favourable to South Africa being a self-governing Dominion within the Empire, and was generally supported by moderates from both ethnicities (Afrikaner and English speakers). In the immediate years before the First World War, South Africa routinely used force to suppress both black and white labour unrest, particularly in the economically vital mining industry. As Minister of Mines, Jan Smuts in July 1913 deployed troops to quell a strike of over 18,000 white workers. After requesting Police, Mounted Riflemen, and even British garrison forces, the strike escalated into a wider industrial riot and then a quasi-uprising against the Government. With increased violence and deaths being reported in Johannesburg, martial law was declared after public property was destroyed and troops responded with live fire. More than 20 people were killed and fears were so great that it was thought that Johannesburg, and critical mining infrastructure, would be completely destroyed. Botha and Smuts hurried from Pretoria to negotiate with the strikers directly, and although Smuts despised the agreement that stated workers grievances would be investigated and those dismissed would be reinstated, he eventually signed after being informed that government troops were beginning to lose control. Later in 1913, the South African Mounted Rifles were again deployed to persuade Mahatma Gandhi into calling off an Indian led strike in Natal. When another general strike occurred the following year in January 1914, Smuts, who was determined not to concede again, crushed the walkout with over 10,000 troops, with the use machine guns and artillery.
By the end of 1914, disillusioned Afrikaners increasingly resented the support that South Africa gave the British Empire during the First World War, as well the perception that Afrikaner culture was being neglected and should develop separately from English-speakers. They were influenced by recent memories of the Second Boer War, in which the Boer Republics fought against Britain to retain their independence. J.B.M. Hertzog, another Boer veteran and former Minister of Justice under Botha, formed the National Party (NP) which gained 20 seats in the 1915 October election, forcing the SAP to become a minority government for the rest of the war, relying on parliamentary support from the pro-British Natal based Unionist Party.
In 1912, the South African Native National Congress, later renamed the African National Congress, was founded in Bloemfontein as an organisation that could defend and advance black rights and freedoms on a national scale. As the first western-styled African political organisation, the founding members, who themselves were members of the elite and saw themselves as gentlemen, almost exclusively undertook legal campaigns against racial discrimination. In August 1914, the SANNC temporarily suspended its campaign against the Natives Land Act (which banned Africans from purchasing land outside the reserves) and declared nationwide support for the war effort.
A SANNC delegation that was already in London, as well as sympathetic newspapers, proposed that black Africans could volunteer to fight for South Africa in exchange for an improvement in civil rights. Denied permission to carry weapons, the SANNC supported the creation of the unarmed South African Native Labour Corps as a way to participate in the war and serve South Africa. Similarly, the African Political Organisation (APO), which was also founded in 1912 to promote Coloured people, had organised over 10,000 potential volunteers as early as December 1914. In 1918 the SANNC sent a petition to King George V highlighting black contributions to the war effort and requesting equality. Although the Coloured, Indian, and black establishment had hoped that enthusiastic and genuine support for the war would be an opportunity to gain equal status, they were to be left bitterly disappointed as they went unrewarded and civil rights continued to be denied after the Treaty of Versailles.
Union Defence Force
After the formation of the Union of South Africa, in 1910, Jan Smuts placed a high priority on establishing a unified military force that would be responsible for national defence. The Defence Act (No. 13) of 1912 saw the creation of the Union Defence Force (UDF), which was made up of a Permanent Force of career soldiers, an Active Citizen Force of conscripts and volunteers, as well as a Cadet force.Dorning, Major W.A. (1987). "A concise history of the South African Defence Force (1912-1987)". South African Journal of Military Studies. 17 (2). It was not considered financially or practically realistic at this time for South Africa to undertake naval responsibility as well, and continued to rely on the Royal Navy for protection. Although the UDF had been intended to blend British and Boer military traditions together, the reality saw the organisation draw heavily on British tradition and alienated Afrikaners by favouring the English language and culture.
Due to South Africa's attitudes towards racial segregation at the time, only White South Africans were allowed to be armed and serve in combat roles due to fears that a multi-racial army would undermine racial separation in wider South African society at home. In peacetime all white males aged between 17 and 25 were eligible for compulsory military service, although only around half were chosen for call up by the use of a lottery system. Compulsory cadet training was organised for white males between the ages of 13 and 17, and a General Reserve of local rifle associations and former Boer commandos was also developed.
At the outbreak of the First World War, the Union Defence Force of South Africa consisted of the small, but professional, Permanent Force of 2,500 South African Mounted Riflemen in five regiments with artillery sections, alongside an Active Citizen Force of nearly 23,000 conscripts and volunteers. Due to the perceived political sensitivity within South Africa regarding Afrikaner loyalty to the Empire, enforced conscription would never be enacted during the war.
As the war progressed and casualties mounted, in September 1915 the Government changed slightly from its strict racial principals and decided to raise infantry battalions for Cape Coloured men wishing to serve. Open from 25 October 1915, the first recruitment station at City Hall in Cape Town was so overwhelmed with applicants that it later required police assistance to control the crowd. Recruiting stations were later opened in Stellenbosch, Worcester, Port Elizabeth, Kimberley to name a few, all with similar levels of high interest by the Coloured population. The Cape Corps was generally expected to undertake non-combatant roles such as transport, pioneers, and guard details.