Muhammad "Amin" Asiyalav ("the Trustworthy"; , ; 1818 – 8 April 1901) also known as Naib-Pasha, () was a North Caucasian politician, Sufi leader and military commander who served as the de facto leader of Circassia from 1848 to 1859. He was one of the Circassian leaders in the Russo-Circassian War. Ruling as a dictator, his era was marked with various reforms in industry, diplomacy, military, administration, religious issues and more. He banned slavery and slave trade, abolished social classes, established schools, promoted Sufism and built small factories. Under his rule, Circassia transformed from a confederation based on the Adyghe Khabze into a unified "military-theocratic state".
Following a mandate by Imam Shamil to lead the Circassians, Amin arrived in Circassia disguised as an ordinary clergyman and rose to power in two years, eventually unifying the loose Circassian Confederation into a united government by force of arms and diplomacy. Although nominally Shamil's governor, he acted independently, as communication between the two parties was difficult, all secular and spiritual power was concentrated entirely in his hands. Among other things, he believed that 'all are equal before God' and thus forced many of the nobility to give up their privileges. His goal was to first unite Circassia, then unify with Shamil to form a pan-Caucasian state. Amin's anti-feudal and Islamist policies ultimately ignited a civil war against the traditional Circassian aristocracy, which hindered his movement. Confronted with the Circassian genocide and a rapidly collapsing resistance, he engineered a peace treaty with the Russian Empire in an attempt to shield his remaining subjects before relinquishing his power and leaving for the Ottoman Empire, where he died an impoverished man.
Biography
Early life Origin and family Muhammad Amin was born in Gonoda, an Avar village situated in the Gunib district of Dagestan. Some sources state he was born on October 20, 1818. However, there is some historical discrepancy regarding his exact birth year, as the epitaph on his grave claims he lived to be 107 years old. Some of his descendants claim he was born earlier, around 1790 (1210 AH). He was raised by his father Hajji and his mother Ayzay. He was of mixed origins, including Avar and Lak origins. He was descended from a cadet-branch of the ruling dynasty of Gazikumukh Khanate, who had moved to Avaria in 1681 due to family disputes. His direct ancestor was Gunash-khan, the eldest son of the Gazikumukh khan Muhammad-khan. According to tradition, he was also a descendant of Quraysh. Some of his ancestors were said to have descended from Qurayshi warriors who settled in Dagestan during the Abbasid period. According to other sources, his family had migrated to Dagestan from Abkhazia.
Muhammad Amin's birth name was simply Muhammad, he was named in honor of his stepfather. In Dagestan, he was also known by the middle name "Asiyalav". He was given the middle name "Asiyalav" (Asiya's) in reference to his stepfather's mother, Asiya. Imam Shamil started referring to Muhammad as "Muhammad the Trustworthy" when he was eighteen. Shamil consistently started his Arabic-language letters to him with the greeting "To our trustworthy Muhammad". Because the word for "trustworthy" in Arabic is "Amin," the Circassians, and later the Russians, assumed this must be his surname and began referring to Muhammad Asiyalav as Muhammad Amin. Muhammad adopted this name, calling himself "Muhammad Amin" in Circassia. According to one account, after the war, Imam Shamil was surprised to learn from the Russians that the famous Muhammad Amin in Circassia was in fact his deputy, Muhammad Asiyalav.
Youth and education From a very early age, he received an Islamic education. His first teacher was Hassan Hussein Effendi, a scholar from his village. Until the age of 11, he studied in his own village, in the Madrasa of Gonoda, learning the Quran. His father died during a raid into Georgia; and after the death of his father at the age of 11, Amin began to lead a wandering lifestyle and indulged in teaching and learning. He studied the Quran and traveled from village to village in the Caucasus and Anatolia.Zeinab Mahomedova, "'Abd al-Rahman-Hajji al-Sughuri – Advocate of Sufi Ideals and Ideologue of the Naqshbandi Tariqa", in Moshe Gammer (ed.), Islam and Sufism in Daghestan (Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, 2009), pp.57-69 He later stated in his autobiography:
He took a formal madrasa education under teachers such as Daut-bek, learning among other things the Arabic, Persian, Russian languages, as well as many of the Dagestani languages. Later, he also studied under the spiritual guidance of the Sufi master Abdurrahman Hajji al-Sughuri. As part of his education, he memorised the entire Quran, earning the title of Hafiz by the age of 13. He was described as "well-educated and devout", with a strong physique and a "pleasant face". Teofil Lapinski, a Polish officer who met Amin in 1859, described his appearance, noting that Amin possessed a handsome and noble face framed by a dark beard, a sturdy build, and above average height. He dressed entirely in white woolen Caucasian clothing with a white kalpak. 19th-century scholar Mirza Kazimbek claimed that Amin surpassed Imam Shamil in his level of scientific knowledge. Kazimbek, who met Amin, also described him as a dark-haired, solidly built, tall, and well-proportioned man with a pleasant face and a gentle smile always on his lips. He was also described as an "extremely capable and dexterous man" by witness accounts.
Amin interacted with Circassians since the age of three, thus despite being of Dagestani origin he had some understanding of the Adyghe language even before his arrival in Circassia.
Career Joining the Imamate When Muhammad Amin turned fifteen, he joined the ranks of Imam Shamil. After proving himself in battle, he gained high ranks in Shamil's government. He continued his studies during this time. At the age of seventeen, he attained the status of a murid, a student in Islamic Sufism. He was part of the Naqshbandiyya-Khalidiyya Sufi order.
He grew to be one of Shamil's most trusted friends and reliable followers. He spent a long time working as Shamil's personal secretary. Pleased with Muhammad Amin's abilities in scholarship and military campaigns, Imam Shamil appointed him as a governor in a region of Chechnya ("Little Chechnya", possibly in modern-day Ingushetia) when he was seventeen years old. He served as Imam Shamil's advisor and most trusted deputy for thirteen years and also became a part of the Imam's council.
Appointment as Naib Historically in Circassia, a Sworn brotherhood () was a voluntary clan where people or families come together by choice. The National Oath which emerged in the early 1800s sought to unite all of Circassia in this manner as a "national" oath. In 1841, the Ubykh, Natukhaj, Shapsug, Abzakh, and several Abkhaz-Abazin societies wrote down the principles of the National Oath in a written document called the "Defter of 1841". This document was Islamic in character, and sought to unify all of Circassia under one rule.
In 1846, a Circassian delegation visited the lands of Imam Shamil. They asked him to appoint a leader for Circassia. The decision took place during a meeting that included Circassian deputies. The proposed candidate had to pass their approval, and the Imamate leadership accepted rejections from the deputies when they occurred. At the meeting, Suleyman Efendi, a Kabardian Circassian, spoke for the Circassians:
Shamil initially refused these requests, arguing that he could not take responsibility for a matter that affected the well-being of the entire country. However, Shamil's secretary, Mirza Amir-Khan, convinced him that the people "could not be left to the mercy of short-sighted leaders". The elders further stated that if Shamil did not provide a suitable person, they would "hold onto the hem of his cherkeska in the afterlife to prevent him from entering paradise". Shamil was concerned by this declaration and offered to appoint his secretary Mirza Amir-Khan to the position, but Mirza Amir-Khan refused. Muhammad Amin, who was reading the Quran and overheard the conversation, volunteered for this position. Initially, Shamil seemed to doubt Amin's capability for this task. However, others at the meeting, including Sufi sheikh Jamaluddin Kumuki, responded positively. Thus Imam Shamil's response was as follows:
After much debate, Muhammad Amin accepted the duty:
According to other sources, Shamil had been preparing Muhammad Amin for this role with a long-term goal in mind. However, when the Circassian ambassadors arrived, he feigned hesitation and issued several subtle refusals, a tactic designed to increase the future authority of his chosen envoy.
Eventually, the Circassian delegation swore an oath of loyalty on the Quran. Muhammad Amin's title was "Naib", the deputy of Imam Shamil. The powers and duties entrusted to him were to unify the social classes, currently divided into upper, middle, and lower strata, according to Islamic principles, and to establish a solid unity among them based on democratic principles; to create administrative and judicial institutions based on Islamic scholarly principles instead of the old practices based on customs and traditions; to establish industrial enterprises aiming for collective development; to divide the Western Caucasus into administrative regions, govern it from a single center, and stand against the enemy with the military forces gathered and organized in this manner. Imam Shamil also stated that financial assistance would be provided from the Imamate Treasury for the establishment of administrative institutions, the recruitment of soldiers, and the procurement of weapons in Circassia.
Amin was not the first naib to be appointed in Circassia. He was preceded by two other emissaries who had gone to Circassia for various reasons. The first was Hadji-Muhammad, who operated in the area from May 1842 to May 1844. The second was Suleiman-Efendi, who arrived in February 1845 and remained until the spring of 1846. Both of them had failed. The Western Circassians generally favored the political aspects of Muridism—uniting against Russia—but were not inclined toward religious fanaticism.
Due to the security risks, Amin's journey from Dagestan was conducted with extreme caution and secrecy. Initially traveling with two horsemen, he sent his transport back upon reaching Chechnya and continued the journey disguised as a beggar to avoid detection. At some point, he was hidden inside a merchant cart. Upon arriving in the Kabardia region, Amin spent a month conducting a discreet situational assessment. During this period, he developed a regional strategy focused on first securing the religious allegiance and trust of the Abzakhs, reasoning that their support would naturally extend his influence over the other Adyghe societies. He chose the Abzakh because they were already firm Muslims, and they had previously expelled their princes and nobles, making them receptive to the message of general equality preached by the muridism of Imam Shamil. Amin spent two months navigating from Kabardia to the Besleney territories. During his time in Besleney, he actively engaged in local diplomacy and community life by attending weddings and funerals, and by reciting the Quran in Arabic for the residents. Before finally moving on to the Abzakh region, he also expanded his outreach by visiting nearby Abaza, Tatar, and Karachay settlements.