Zimbabwean English (ZimE; en-ZIM; en-ZW) is a regional variety of English found in Zimbabwe. While the majority of Zimbabweans speak Shona (75%) and Ndebele (18%) as a first language, standard English is the primary language used in education, government, commerce and media in Zimbabwe, giving it an important role in society. About 93 percent of the population can speak English fluently or at a high level, and it is the native language of mixed race (Coloured) and White Zimbabweans.
Casual observers tend to have difficulty in placing the Zimbabwean accent, as it differs from those that are clearly from British, South African or other African Englishes; like other English dialects, the accent tends to vary between individuals based on education, class and ethnic background. To Americans, it sounds slightly British, while British speakers find the accent rather old-fashioned and either nasal or somewhat twangy or African-influenced depending on the background of the speaker.
The Zimbabwean education system uses English along with other national languages. Of the languages used in Zimbabwe, it is used nationally and considered the Lingua franca of the country.
History
Zimbabwean English has been called "one of the under researched varieties of English".Cecilia Cutler, Stephanie Hackert and Chanti Seymour, "Bermuda and Bahamas", in Ulrich Ammon (ed.), Sociolinguistics. An International Handbook. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter, 2006. . p. 2066. It primarily shows a mixture of traits typical of British English and to a lesser extent, South African English, and is generally classified as a form of Southern Hemisphere English along with Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English and the lesser known Falkland Islands English, which all descend from southern British English dialects.Tom McArthur (ed.), Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. . pp. 116, 352. While Zimbabwean English shares many similarities with southern hemisphere Englishes (Australian, New Zealand, South African), it is distinct from its closest relative, South African English, despite occasional confusion by outsiders. Southern Rhodesia was heavily influenced by South Africa from 1890 until it voted for responsible government in 1923. This along with waves of immigration from the Cape Colony and Orange Free State influenced the early development of English in the country. As a result, most similarities between Zimbabwean English and South African English date from this early period, and were somewhat reinvigorated by post war migration from South Africa.
However, after 1923, the Rhodesian and British Governments increasingly grouped Rhodesia with the Central African colonies and firmly within the British sphere of influence. This led to a divergence between the two Englishes and from then on Zimbabwean English was predominately influenced by British English, with the minor influence of Afrikaans (in comparison with South Africa) and African languages, generally used to describe flora and fauna, with terms such as kopje, dassie and bhundu (Shona for bush). Migration from Britain, especially after World War II, introduced and reinforced many features of dialects from Southern England and to a lesser extent those from the East Midlands and Scotland, which had an impact on local speech.Susan Fitzmaurice, "History, Social Meaning, and Identity in the Spoken English of White Zimbabweans." Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence, ed. by Irma Taavitsainen et al. Cambridge University Press, 2015 This dialect came to be known as Rhodesian English, typified by speakers such as Ian Smith and P.K. van der Byl.
After independence in 1980, this dialect fell sharply out of favour and came to be regarded as an archaic, non-productive dialect, only spoken by the oldest generation of white Zimbabweans and out of touch, nostalgic Rhodies and whenwes. Zimbabwean English evolved with the changing social, economic and political conditions in which blacks and whites interacted in Zimbabwe; with the old conservative Rhodesian accent being effectively replaced by the more neutral and prestigious sounding cultivated private school accent, which ironically retains some of its features.Peter Trudgill, "Lesser-Known Varieties of English." Alternative Histories of English, ed. by R. J. Watts and P. Trudgill. Routledge, 2002
Another noticeable trend was a steep decline in the influence of South African English and Afrikaans-derived terminology after 1980, with a notable preference for British English or African-derived alternatives, due to tensions between the Mugabe and apartheid South African governments, though a handful of terms such as braai and voetsek remain (see List of South African slang words). Similarly, bilingual Afrikaner institutions such as the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa and Eaglesvale Senior School switched to an English-only or English-dominant format, in response to government scrutiny. Today, the main languages spoken in are English, Shona and Ndebele. Only 3.5%, mainly the white, Indian, Asian, coloured (mixed race) and foreign-born minorities, consider English their native language. The vast majority of English speakers are black Zimbabweans, who are bilingual or even trilingual with Bantu languages such as Shona (75%), Ndebele (18%) and the other minority languages, and thus these speakers have an outsize role in influencing the direction of Zimbabwean English, despite traditional native speakers maintaining an important influence.
Phonetics and phonology English in Zimbabwe is uniformly non-rhotic. This is consistent with other varieties of English in the southern hemisphere. One major difference between the now archaic Rhodesian English and other Englishes of the southern hemisphere is a high pitched nasality or twang noted in speakers such as Ian Smith. This influence remains to a lesser degree in cultivated forms of Zimbabwean English especially as spoken by older Anglo African speakers.
Characteristics
Sociocultural
Cultivated accents
Much like Australian and South African English, spoken English exists on a continuum from broad, general to cultivated (see broad and general accents), based on an individual's background, particularly with regards to education, class, income and historically, ethnicity. Affluent, upper middle class and highly educated Zimbabweans speak in a cultivated accent, influenced by older forms of southern British English, especially Received Pronunciation and the now archaic Rhodesian English. The cultivated accent can be viewed as a localised approximation of Received Pronunciation, taught at private, fee-paying day and boarding schools such as Prince Edward School, Arundel School and Peterhouse Boys' School. Indeed, cultivated speakers (such as Peter Ndoro or Tsitsi Dangarembga) can sometimes sound virtually indistinguishable from middle class, privately educated, British Received Pronunciation speakers (though not the British upper class). As such, the accent is only spoken natively by a tiny fraction of the population and denotes prestige and authority, with many dialect speakers dominating spaces such as business, the performing arts, law, journalism, cricket and higher education as late as the late 1990s. Similar accents can be noted in other former British territories such as cultivated Australian and Canadian dainty. The cultivated accent is sometimes humorously mocked by other speakers for its nasality and alleged pretentiousness, with speakers derided as the so-called nose brigades. Robert Mugabe, Brendan Taylor, Pommie Mbangwa, Dave Houghton and journalists Peter Ndoro and Sophie Chamboko are notable speakers of a cultivated accent.
Broad accents
On the other hand, rural and urban working class speakers, are heavily influenced by their native languages (these groups are also mocked as SRBs whose accents betray their strong rural background). This "broad" variety is most associated with the working class, rural persons, low socioeconomic status, and limited education. These three sub-varieties have also been called "Cultivated ZimE", "General ZimE", and "Broad ZimE", respectively. Broad accents roughly approximates the English as a second-language varieties of English.Susan Fitzmaurice, "L1 Rhodesian English." The Lesser-Known Varieties of English, ed. by D. Schreier et al. Cambridge University Press, 2010 This variety has been stigmatised by middle and upper middle class English speakers and is considered a vernacular or improper form of Zimbabwean English. A notable trend by broad speakers is a growing preference for English names that are direct translations from African languages. This is largely due to the prestige of English in society, their limited education and the aspiration of parents for their children to move into the middle classes or pursue opportunities abroad. Such names generally appear non-standard to native English speakers and are usually viewed humorously by middle class Zimbabweans and native speakers such as Britons, Americans, Irish people and Australians, when they interact with broad speakers abroad. Examples of such names include Innocent, Fortunate, Blessing and Lovemore. Notable speakers of the broad Zimbabwean accent are Jonathan Moyo and Winky D.
General Zimbabwean English
Lower middle to middle class black Zimbabweans are by far the largest speakers of Zimbabwean English and are generally the most prominent in the mainstream media, especially since 2000. These speakers generally fall in a spectrum between the two accents with educated accents approximating cultivated accents but without quite the same level of elocution, while lower middle class speakers tend to speak more plainly. As a result, the general accent shows greater variety than other dialects. Indeed, contrary to outside expectations, a number notable of white Zimbabweans, especially those under 45 exhibit features of a general accent, albeit with a hint of nasality. This is largely due to the growth of the internet, circular migration, as well as Zimbabweans of all races interacting with each other on equal terms. Despite this white speakers still form a disproportionate number of cultivated accent speakers. A notable feature of general accents is a tendency to over pronounce certain consonants, than other dialects, such as the hard T, though this is not a feature among white speakers. Speakers of the general dialect tend to have at least a high school education and speak English fluently and natively and are perfectly bilingual.
The aspirational nature of this group, has led to younger speakers becoming more susceptible to influences from other Englishes, particularly pop-culture references from American English (what's up, you guys, chill out, like) that are derided by cultivated speakers who overwhelmingly prefer British conventions and more traditionally minded Zimbabweans who dismiss individuals with such affectations as so called salads (stupid Africans who like (ie copy) American dressing (trends)). Lesser influences include Jamaican patois from the popularity of reggae and dancehall with lower middle class youths and British slang and London English accents due to the growth of Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom. Speakers of this general Zimbabwean accent include: Evan Mawarire, Hamilton Masakadza, Marc Pozzo, Heath Streak, Morgan Tsvangirai and Petina Gappah.