Medieval India was a long period of post-classical history in the Indian subcontinent between the ancient and modern periods. It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century to the start of the early modern period in 1526 with the start of the Mughal Empire, although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the early medieval and late medieval eras.
In the early medieval period, there were more than 40 different states on the Indian subcontinent, which hosted a variety of cultures, languages, writing systems, and religions. At the beginning of the time period, Buddhism was predominant throughout the area, with the Pala Empire on the Indo Gangetic Plain sponsoring the Buddhist faith's institutions. One such institution was the Buddhist Nalanda mahavihara in modern-day Bihar, a centre of scholarship which brought a divided South Asia onto the global intellectual stage. Another accomplishment was the invention of Chaturanga, which later was exported to Europe and became chess. In Southern India, the Tamil Hindu, the Cholas gained prominence. In this time period, neighbouring regions such as Afghanistan, Tibet, and Southeast Asia were under South Asian influence.
During the late medieval period, a series of Islamic invasions by the Arabs, the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids conquered large portions of Northern India. Turkic general Qutb ud-Din Aibak declared his independence from the Ghurid Empire and founded the Delhi Sultanate which ruled until the 16th century. As a consequence, Buddhism declined in South Asia, but Hinduism survived and reinforced itself in areas conquered by Muslim empires. In the far South, the Vijayanagara Empire resisted Muslim conquests, sparking a long rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate. The turn of the 16th century would see the introduction of gunpowder and the rise of a new Muslim empire — the Mughals — as well as the establishment of European trading posts by the Portuguese colonists. The Mughal Empire was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia. The subsequent cultural and technological developments transformed Indian society, concluding the late medieval period and beginning the early modern period.
Terminology and periodisation
One definition includes the period from the 6th century, the first half of the 7th century,Chakravarti, Mahadev, The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages, pp. 153-154, 1986, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., , 9788120800533, google books or the 8th century up to the 16th century, essentially coinciding with the Middle Ages of Europe. It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century, ending with the start of the Mughal Empire in 1526. The Mughal era, from the 16th century to the 18th century, is often referred to as the early modern period, but is sometimes also included in the 'late medieval' period.
An alternative definition, often seen in those more recent authors who still use the term, brings the start of the medieval times forward: either to about 1000 CE, or to the 12th century.According to the article on "Architecture" in Banglapedia, "Unlike European periodisation, the medieval period in Indian history is generally regarded to have started with the coming of the Muslims, particularly the conquest of Delhi towards the end of the twelfth century by the Ghorids of Afghanistan." The "generally regarded" is dubious. The end may be pushed back to the 18th century; hence, this period can be effectively considered as the beginning of Muslim domination to British India. Or the "early medieval" period as beginning in the 8th century, and ending with the 11th century.Ahmed, xviii However, such periodisation has been criticized, with Ram Sharan Sharma arguing in his 1998 Early Medieval Indian Society that periodization based primarily on eras of religious dominance misses the actual events causing change in Indian history; he asserts a transition to the middle ages is better understood in the context of a shift towards a land grant-based system of rule in response to a "crisis" of develoving state authority and caste adherence.
The use of "medieval" at all as a term for periods in Indian history has often been objected to. It is probably becoming more rare (there is a similar discussion in terms of the history of China).Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..." It is argued that neither the start nor the end of the period really mark fundamental changes in Indian history, comparable to the European equivalents.Rowland, 273 Burton Stein still used the concept in his A History of India (1998), referring to the period from the Guptas to the Mughals, but most recent authors using it are Indian. Understandably, they often specify the period they cover within their titles.Examples: Farooqui; Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D., 2002, google books ; Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, 2004 (2 vols), google books ; Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century, 2008, google books
Periods Early medieval period
The start of the period is typically taken to be the slow collapse of the Gupta Empire from about 480 to 550,Rowland, 273; Stein, 105 ending the "classical" period, as well as "ancient India",Not for Burjor Avari, who ends "ancient India" at 1200. Avari, 2 although both these terms may be used for periods with widely different dates, especially in specialised fields such as the history of art or religion.For architecture, see Michell, 87-88. For "classical hinduism", see the note at Outline of ancient India. Another alternative for the preceding period is "Early Historical" stretching "from the sixth century BC to the sixth century AD", according to Romila Thapar.Early Indian History and the Legacy of D.D. Kosambi by Romila Thapar. Resonance, June 2011, p. 571
At least in northern India, there was no larger state until the Delhi Sultanate, or certainly the Mughal Empire,Keay, xxii-xxiii but there were several different dynasties ruling large areas for long periods, as well as many other dynasties ruling smaller areas, often paying some form of tribute to larger states. John Keay puts the typical number of dynasties within the subcontinent at any one time at between 20 and 40,Keay, xx-xxi not including local rajas. Pallava dynasty, rulers of Telugu and some Tamil areas from the 3rd to 9th centuries. Empire of Harsha, a brief period of control of most of north India, from 601 to 647, under Harsha of the Vardhana dynasty. Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was the last largest dynasty of northern India which rivalled the Gupta empire in extent and ruled a large swath of northern India from the 6th century to 11th century. They can be differentiated from other kingdoms as they were called Imperial Pratiharas. Chalukya dynasty ruled most of the western Deccan and some parts of South India, between the 6th and 12th centuries. Kannada-speaking, with capital at Badami. Rashtrakuta dynasty, ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries and built the World Heritage site of Ellora, Maharashtra. Eastern Chalukyas, 7th and 12th centuries, a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in present-day Andhra Pradesh, with their capital at Vengi. Kingdom of Valabhi ruled by Maitraka dynasty, which was founded after decline of Gupta Empire, it controlled whole of Gujarat and areas beyond from 5th century to 8th century. They were succeeded by Saindhavas. Saindhava later known as Jethwa dynasty ruled from 7th century large parts of Saurahtra and controlled western coast of Gujarat for many years before their territory was reduced to Porbandar State which merged into India in 1947. Pala Empire, the last major Buddhist rulers, from the 8th to 12th centuries in Bengal. Briefly controlled most of north India in the 9th century. Chola Empire, a South Indian empire which ruled from Tamil Nadu and extending to neighbouring states. Also conducted raids on Southeast Asian kingdoms at its height. Ruled from the 9th century to 13th century. Western Chalukya Empire, ruled most of the western Deccan and some of South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Kannada-speaking, with capital at Badami. Kalachuri dynasty, ruled areas in Central India during 10th-12th centuries. Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur, ruled Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand. Western Ganga dynasty, was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka, often under the overlordship of larger states, from about 350 to 1000 CE. The large monolithic Bahubali of Shravanabelagola was built during their rule. Eastern Ganga dynasty, was a royal dynasty ruling Odisha region who ruled from 11th to 15th century and have marital alliances with Chalukyas and Chola Empire. They have built famous Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple, Puri. Hoysala Empire, a prominent South Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu. Kakatiya Kingdom, a Telugu dynasty that ruled most of current day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Kamarupa, 4th to 12th century in Assam, ruled by three dynasties viz Varman dynasty, Mlechchha dynasty, Pala dynasty (Kamarupa). Sena dynasty, 11th to 13th century in Bengal, following the decline of Pala Empire
Late medieval period
This period follows the Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent and the decline of Buddhism, the eventual founding of the Delhi Sultanate and the creation of Indo-Islamic architecture, followed by the world's major trading nation, the Bengal Sultanate.Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, pages 184-185 Cutch 1176-1947, founded by Jadejas in early 12th century remained till 1947. The branches of these dynasty founded other kingdoms like Nawanagar State, Rajkot State, Morvi State and remained a dominant force in Kutch and Saurashtra region till merger with India after 1947. Bengal Sultanate, 1352 to 1576, ruled over Bengal and much of Burma. Khandesh Sultanate under Farooqi dynasty, 1382–1601, in the region of Khandesh Jaunpur Sultanate, 1394–1479, in northern India Gujarat Sultanate, 1407–1573, in the state of Gujarat. Malwa Sultanate, 1392–1562, in the region of Malwa Bahmani Sultanate, 1347–1518, in the Deccan region. Madurai Sultanate, 1335–1378, in South India.. Chero dynasty, ruled from the 12th to 18th century, governed over parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya, Buddhist rulers of Magadha with their capital in Bodh Gaya. Ruled from 1120 until the late 13th century. Khayaravala dynasty, tribal state and vassals of the Gahadavala dynasty which ruled parts of south western Bihar from the 11-13th century. Delhi Sultanate, five short-lived dynasties, based in Delhi, from 1206 to 1526, when it fell to the Mughal Empire. Karnats of Mithila, 1097–1324 in the Mithila region of North Bihar and Southern Nepal Oiniwar dynasty, 1325–1526 in the Mithila region and successors of the Karnats of Mithila Khanzadas of Mewat, initially ruled Mewat under the Delhi Sultanate from 1372 to 1427 then later under independent rule 1427–1527. The Sena dynasty, was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.