Yao Xiang (331?–357), courtesy name Jingguo, posthumously honored Prince Wu of Wei, was an ethnic Qiang warlord during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Jin dynasty (266–420) in Chinese history. He was the fifth son and heir of the Later Zhao general Yao Yizhong. After the destruction of Zhao and the death of Yizhong in 352, he went south to serve under the Jin dynasty. However, due to animosity between him and the Jin commander, Yin Hao, he broke away and roved the Central Plains to establish a base while fighting against Jin and the Former Qin. Although he suffered major losses from time to time, his charismatic personality allowed him to win and keep the support of the people wherever he went. In the end, he was killed in an ambush in 357 while fighting Qin forces at Sanyuan. After his death, his brother, Yao Chang, surrendered to Qin and became one of its generals. In 384, he rebelled and established the Later Qin, posthumously honouring Yao Xiang as a prince in the process.
Service under Later Zhao
Early life and career The year of Yao Xiang's birth is a matter of dispute. It is recorded that he was 27 years old when he died in 357, meaning that he was born in 331. However, his younger brother, Yao Yizhong's 24th son, Yao Chang, was recorded to be 64 years old when he died in 393, indicating that Yao Chang was born earlier than he was. Thus, there had likely been an error by historians when recording his age.
Yao Xiang was eight chi five cun tall (6 ft 8 In) and even in his youth, he was very popular among the gentry and common people for his talents and hospitality.(襄字景國，弋仲之第五子也。年十七，身長八尺五寸，臂垂過膝，雄武多才藝，明察善撫納，士眾愛敬之，咸請為嗣。弋仲弗許，百姓固請者日有千數，乃授之以兵。石祗僭號，以襄為使持節、驃騎將軍、護烏丸校尉、豫州刺史、新昌公。) Book of Jin, Volume 116 His first recorded military action was in 350 amidst the aftermath of Ran Min's takeover of the Zhao government. He fought against Yizhong's former colleague, the Di leader Pu Hong, over the strategic location of Guanyou (關右, west of present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi) but was badly defeated.(姚弋仲、蒲洪各有據關右之志。弋仲遣其子襄帥衆五萬擊洪，洪迎擊，破之，斬獲三萬餘級。洪自稱大都督、大將軍、大單于、三秦王，改姓苻氏。) Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 98
Ran Wei-Later Zhao War
Later that year, Yao Yizhong was appointed the Prime Minister of the Right. As Yizhong looked to establish an heir, many of his subordinates and followers pushed for Yao Xiang. Yizhong declined, as Yao Xiang was not the eldest son. However, support for Yao Xiang continued to grow, so Yizhong eventually accepted their demand. Yao Xiang was later appointed by the Zhao ruler, Shi Zhi, as Commissioner Bearing Credentials.
In 351, Shi Zhi was besieged by Ran Min in Xiangguo. Yao Yizhong sent Yao Xiang to lift the siege, but not before telling his son to swear that he would capture Ran Min for massacring the Shi clan.(祗與閔相攻，弋仲遣其子襄救祗，戒襄曰：「汝才十倍于閔，若不梟擒，不須復見我也。」) Book of Jin, Volume 116 Yao Xiang arrived in Xiangguo with assistance from Shi Kun (石琨) and Former Yan's general Yue Wan. Yao Xiang defeated Ran Min's general Hu Mu (胡睦) at Zhanglu (長蘆, in present-day Cangzhou, Hebei). As the three forces approached, Ran Min went out to give battle. Yao Xiang, Shi Kun and Yue Wan attacked Ran Min from three sides while Shi Zhi came out to attack from behind. Ran Min suffered a terrible defeat but managed to escape. Though Yao Xiang was victorious, he did not fulfill his promise, so Yizhong punished him with a hundred floggings.(襄擊閔于常盧澤，大破之而歸。弋仲怒襄之不擒閔也，杖之一百。) Book of Jin, Volume 116
Flight to the south Shi Zhi died later that same year after his subordinate, Liu Xian, assassinated him and defected to Ran Min. Shi Zhi's death marked the end for Later Zhao, so Yizhong decided to submit to the Jin dynasty. After their submission was accepted, Yao Xiang was appointed General Who Pacifies the North and a few other positions. In 352, Yao Yizhong died, and before his death, he advised his sons to join Jin in the south now that the Shi clan had been destroyed. Yao Xiang succeeded his father but kept his death a secret.
He attacked the counties of Fagan (發乾; present-day Guan County, Shandong), Yangping (陽平; present-day Shen County, Shandong) and Yuancheng (元城; present-day Daming County, Hebei) before stopping at Que'ao Crossing (碻磝, in present-day Chiping District, Shandong) to hand out appointments. He then continued his journey, encountering Former Qin forces and suffering a defeat at Matian (麻田, east of present-day Luoyang, Henan) along the way. At Matian, Yao Xiang's horse was shot, so Yao Chang gave his horse to Xiang to allow him to escape. Fortunately for the two, reinforcements arrived in time to save them. Yao Xiang's group finally arrived in Jin at Xingyang, where only then he commenced the traditional mourning ritual for his father.(姚弋仲有子四十二人，及病，謂諸子曰：「石氏待吾厚，吾本欲為之盡力。今石氏已滅，中原無主；我死，汝亟自歸於晉，當固執臣節，無為不義也！」弋仲卒，子襄秘不發喪，帥戶六萬南攻陽平、元城、發乾，破之，屯於碻磝津，以太原王亮為長史，天水尹赤為司馬，太原薛瓚、略陽權翼為參軍。襄與秦兵戰，敗，亡三萬餘戶，南至滎陽，始發喪。) Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 99
Yao Xiang sent five of his younger brothers to the Jin capital of Jiankang as hostages. The court accepted them and stationed Yao Xiang at Qiao (譙; present-day Bozhou, Anhui). The southlands were almost immediately charmed by Yao Xiang's personality and respected him greatly. Around this time, Yao Xiang visited the Jin official Xie Shang at Shouchun. Despite Xiang wearing a headscarf, Xie Shang easily recognised who he was, and the two quickly became close friends.(晉處襄於譙城，遣五弟為任，單騎度淮，見豫州刺史謝尚于壽春。尚命去仗衛，幅巾以待之，一面交款，便若平生。襄少有高名，雄武冠世，好學博通，雅善談論，英濟之稱著于南夏。) Book of Jin, Volume 116
As general of Jin
Yin Hao's first northern expedition At the time of Yao Xiang's entry into the Jin dynasty, the Jin commander, Yin Hao, was carrying out his northern campaign. Yin Hao's target at the time was to capture the city of Xuchang from the warlord, Zhang Yu. In July 352, Yao Xiang and Xie Shang attacked the city. In response, Former Qin's Heavenly King, Fu Jiàn, sent Fu Xiong and Fu Jing (苻靚) to repel them and receive Zhang Yu. Xie Shang was defeated at Chengqiao (誠橋; near Xuchang) at the Ying River, causing him to retreat to Huainan. After hearing of Xie Shang's defeat, Yao Xiang abandoned his baggages to escort him to safety at Que Slope (芍陂; south of present-day Shou County, Anhui). Once at Que, Xie Shang left all matters in Yao Xiang's hands. The defeat forced Yin Hao's return to Shouchun and led to Xie Shang's demotion.(夏四月，安西將軍謝尚帥姚襄與張遇戰于許昌之誡橋，王師敗績。苻健使其弟雄襲遇，虜之。) Book of Jin, Volume 8
Escaping assassination In 353, Yao Xiang believed that Former Qin and Former Yan had both grown strong, and to attack them would only result in defeat. Instead, he decided to set up military agricultural farms along the Huai River to train troops and strengthen Jin's frontier for the future.(姚襄屯歷陽，以燕、秦方強，未有北伐之志，乃夾淮廣興屯田，訓厲將士。) Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 99 Meanwhile, Yin Hao began to worry about Yao Xiang's growing influence and was eager to get rid of him. Yin Hao had Yao Xiang's younger brothers imprisoned before sending assassins against him. However, the assassins all thought highly of Yao Xiang and instead revealed the plot to him. Soon, Yin Hao sent a general named Wei Jing (魏憬) to launch a surprise attack on Yao Xiang, but Wei Jing was defeated and killed instead.
With both of his assassination plots having failed, Yin Hao decided to move Yao Xiang somewhere far from him. He had his general, Liu Qi (劉啟) stationed at Qiao and ordered Xiang to move from Qiao to Litai (蠡台) in Liang state.(中軍將軍、揚州刺史殷浩憚其威名，乃因襄諸弟，頻遣刺客殺襄，刺客皆推誠告實，襄待之若舊。浩潛遣將軍魏憬率五千餘人襲襄，襄乃斬憬而並其眾。浩愈惡之，乃使將軍劉啟守譙，遷襄于梁國蠡台，表授梁國內史。) Book of Jin, Volume 116 Meanwhile, Yao Xiang became increasingly worried as he noticed that Wei Jing's sons and brothers were constantly visiting Yin Hao's base in Shouchun. Yao Xiang sent his advisor Quan Yi to discuss the issue with Yin Hao. The two men's meeting only confirmed their side's suspicion for one another and sowed further distrust.(襄遣權翼詣浩，浩曰：「姚平北每舉動自由，豈所望也。」翼曰：「將軍輕納奸言，自生疑貳，愚謂猜嫌之由，不在於彼。」浩曰：「姚君縱放小人，盜竊吾馬，王臣之體固若是乎？」翼曰：「將軍謂姚平北以威武自強，終為難保，校兵練眾，將懲不恪，取馬者欲以自衛耳。」浩曰：「何至是也。」) Book of Jin, Volume 116
Yin Hao's second northern expedition Yin Hao marched north again in winter of 353, with Yao Xiang served as his vanguard. However, Yao Xiang now had the intention to break away from Jin. When Yin Hao's army were close by, Yao Xiang pretended to flee north during the night while setting up ambushes for pursuing Jin forces. When Yin Hao heard about Yao Xiang's actions, he chased after Yao Xiang all the way to Shansang (山桑; in present-day Mengcheng County, Anhui). Yao Xiang's ambushes devastated Yin Hao's army as they killed and captured thousands of their forces. Yin Hao was forced to abandon his supplies and weapon before retreating to Qiao, allowing Yao Xiang to claim them for himself. Yao Xiang then left his brother Yao Yi (姚益) to guard Shansang while he returned south to Huainan.(浩以姚襄為前驅。襄引兵北行，度浩將至，詐令部眾夜遁，陰伏甲以邀之。浩聞而追襄至山桑。襄縱兵擊之，浩大敗，棄輜重，走保譙城。襄俘斬萬餘，悉收其資仗，使兄益守山桑，襄復加淮南。會稽王昱謂王彪之曰：「君言無不中，張、陳無以過也！」) Zizhi Tongjian, Volume 99
As an independent warlord
Campaigns against Jin Yin Hao sent Liu Qi and Wang Binzhi (王彬之) to attack Shansang, but Yao Xiang turned back from Huainan to attack them. After killing Liu and Wang, Yao Xiang marched to Que Slope and captured it. Soon, Yao Xiang crossed the Huai River and camped at Xuyi, where he gathered thousands of refugees and officials under his wing. He instructed his followers to farm and start silkworm cultivation while he sent envoys to Jiankang denouncing Yin Hao and apologising for actions. In response, the Jin court positioned Xie Shang at Liyang, in hopes that his friendship with Xiang would be enough to win him back.(襄鼓行濟淮，屯於盱眙，招掠流人，眾至七萬，分置守宰，勸課農桑，遣使建鄴，罪狀殷浩，並自陳謝。) Book of Jin, Volume 116
The following year, Yao Xiang submitted to Former Yan and was appointed Inspector of Yuzhou and Duke of Danyang by Murong Jun.(慕容儁以襄為豫州刺史、丹陽公。) Book of Northern Wei, Volume 95 Later, a refugee leader named Guo Chang (郭敞) rebelled against Jin and captured Tangyi Commandery (堂邑, north of modern day Luhe District, Nanjing) along with its Interior Minister, Liu Shi (劉仕). Guo surrendered the commandery to Yao Xiang, which caused the Jin court to panic as this left Jiankang exposed to Xiang. The capital's defenses were tightened, and Xie Shang was moved from Liyang to the capital region to defend the Yangtze.(流人郭斁等千餘人執晉堂邑內史劉仕降於襄，朝延大震，以吏部尚書周閔為中軍將軍，緣江備守。) Book of Jin, Volume 116
In 355, Yao Xiang declared himself Grand Chanyu and Grand General. Many of Xiang's followers were northerners, and because of this, they urged him to march north so that they could return home. Yao Xiang agreed, and along the way, he fought with the Jin general Gao Ji (高季) at Waihuang (外黃, east of modern day Qi County, Henan). He was defeated at first, but managed to regather his scattered troops and continued the assault. Gao eventually died of natural causes, allowing Xiang to overcome his leaderless army. Xiang then advanced to Xuchang and occupied the city.(襄方軌引北，自稱大將軍、大單于，據許昌。) Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms, Volume 5
Huan Wen's second northern expedition
The next year in 356, Huan Wen was appointed by Jin as Grand Commander of the Expeditionary Force to campaign against Yao Xiang. At the same time, Yao Xiang led his army to capture Luoyang from the warlord Zhou Cheng (周成). He planned to establish a base in the Hedong region (河東; around present-day Shanxi) before pressing on to conquer Guandong. However, he was unable to capture Luoyang even after a month of siege. His Chief Clerk Wang Liang (王亮) advised him to retreat, but he refused, refuting his argument by claiming that Luoyang would make a valuable stronghold. Not long after, Wang Liang died, and Yao Xiang became remorseful of his death.(其長史王亮諫襄曰：「公英略蓋天下，士眾思效力命，不可損威勞眾，守此孤城。宜還河北，以弘遠略。」襄曰：「洛陽雖小，山河四塞之固，亦是用武之地。吾欲先據洛陽，然後開建大業。」俄而亮卒，襄哭之甚慟...) Book of Jin, Volume 112