Maritime cocaine smuggling is the smuggling of cocaine between countries and territorial sea borders via maritime means, including boats, fishing vessels and ships. Cocaine cargoes are smuggled by various criminal groups and drug trafficking cartels from producing countries to other countries where cocaine is consumed. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), there are an estimated 18 million users of cocaine globally. Approximately 70–80% of cocaine is at some point smuggled across the ocean, originating from South America. Cocaine remains the "highest value criminal commodity for transnational organised crime", motivating the criminal organisations responsible for maritime smuggling practices. Maritime cocaine smuggling is therefore an ongoing international issue, characterised by continual adaptation in trafficking routes, transportation methods and concealment techniques as criminal organisations respond to changing operational conditions and law-enforcement efforts.UNODC
Historical overview Cocaine has been an illicit and abused substance for many years. Coca leaves, the source of cocaine, were previously (and still are) used in the Andes for the sole purpose of religious ceremonies. But, after the invasion of the Spanish and the exportation of coca leaves to the colonies, cocaine was used for both medicinal and recreational purposes. From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, cocaine was a popular drug widely used by the white middle-class. However, once use in society grew and the dangers of cocaine became evident, the use and sale of coca products were outlawed with the Harrison Narcotics Act in the United States in 1914, one of the first examples of drug legislation. From then on, the cocaine trade became a strictly illegal network. It was not until the 1970s that Colombian drug cartels set up their smuggling network to get cocaine into the United States.. The expansion of the cocaine trade during the 1970s also marked the beginning of large-scale maritime cocaine trafficking. As production increased in the Andean region, maritime transportation became an increasingly important means of moving cocaine to North America and, later, Europe. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), maritime routes continue to account for the majority of global cocaine trafficking and have become increasingly diversified as criminal organisations adapt to changing trafficking opportunities and interdiction efforts.
Drug cartels Cocaine smuggling was previously dominated by drug cartels, particularly from Colombia. Notorious cocaine cartels such as Medellin cartel and Cali cartel have both dominated the illicit cocaine trade as well as their country of Colombia. Very early on, these cartels identified the weakness of authorities in the maritime domain and used this to their advantage. In addition to this, the lack of understanding of government administrations of the cartel structure and widespread influence has led to the speculation that this was a leading cause of the crack cocaine epidemic in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s.
The disintegration of these top cocaine cartels in Colombia in the late 1990s have paved the way for insurgent groups to take over. For example, the National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), are both currently key actors in the cocaine trade from Colombia. While cocaine cartels are still active today, they are not as prevalent or as active as they were in the late 1900s.
Cocaine smuggling on the maritime security agenda Cocaine smuggling has become a bigger part of maritime security as the idea of maritime security has expanded to encompass a broader range of transnational criminal activities. Although there are no clear dividing lines or exact time periods, different trends have overlapped and followed each other since the late 1990s. While the first two phases centered on maritime terrorism and piracy, respectively, the third phase expanded the maritime security agenda to encompass a broader range of so-called “blue crimes”, a term referring to harmful organized crimes or offenses happening in, on, or across the sea. It includes various crimes, such as smuggling cocaine and other drugs overseas. Since this third phase began in the early 2010s, blue crimes like cocaine smuggling have become increasingly important in maritime security, raising concerns in maritime governance.
Key routes Based on reported seizures, main cocaine trafficking routes have been mapped out by the UNODC. These routes are primarily in line with commercial shipping routes as this is one of the major methods that smugglers use to get mass amounts of cocaine across borders. The most common routes are those between Colombia and Europe, North America and Brazil (where cocaine is transhipped onwards to other countries for sale).
Key points of origin of maritime cocaine smuggling still remain to be from mainly Colombia, as well as Bolivia and Peru. From here, a large volume goes to Brazil, Mexico and Central America, the Caribbean, and Western and Central Europe. Mexico and Central America are used as transit countries for the high quantity of cocaine headed to the United States. Brazil is a major destination and transit country for cocaine smugglers and this supply goes onto Western and Central Europe, South Africa, West and Central Africa and South Asia. The Caribbean and Central America are also transit countries for the large quantity directed for Western and Central Europe. Spain is a highly used transit and destination country in Europe, which have major flows through to France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. From West/Central Europe there is a medium supply of cocaine through to Eastern Europe, the Middle East and South-West Asia. Countries in West, Central and South Africa are used as a transit for the flow of cocaine to Italy in particular. Medium volumes of cocaine go directly from South America to East and South-East Asia and Oceania, Australia in particular.
Trafficking routes are not static but continue to evolve in response to changes in demand, interdiction efforts and opportunities for maritime transport. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has observed that criminal networks regularly modify routes and transhipment points when established corridors become subject to increased law-enforcement pressure. Rather than replacing existing routes entirely, new maritime corridors often emerge alongside established ones, increasing the flexibility and resilience of maritime cocaine trafficking networks.
Methods and techniques Smuggling cocaine has become increasingly innovative as criminal organisations try to avoid detection by authorities. These methods are primarily via the maritime using maritime cargo, containers and vessels.
Most commonly, cocaine smugglers hide cocaine within other products that are arriving to another country as "commercial" products in shipping containers. Examples of this include inside concrete blocks, fruits, vehicles, in the insulation of container ships, mixing the cocaine with liquid products and soaking liquid cocaine in fabrics such as clothing.
Another commonality is creating an operational business to disguise the mass shipments. Notorious drug lord Joaquin 'El Chapo' Guzman is one of many who have mixed legitimate business with their drug activities to conceal their illicit trading. El Chapo opened a cannery in Mexico and began producing canned jalapeños and peppers, and stuffed them with cocaine.
Another popular smuggling technique is the "rear rip" or "rear rip-off" method. This involves the cocaine being stored in the rear door of the container so it can be quickly identified by smugglers or corrupt dock workers, and extracted before going through customs. In the ”rip-off” method, the smuggling primarily takes place without the shipper’s or consignee’s knowledge. Hereby, the legitimate shipments serve as camouflage until they arrive at the intended destination country.
Innovation and adaptation
Maritime cocaine smuggling is characterised by continual adaptation in transportation methods, concealment techniques and logistics. Rather than relying on a single method of transport, trafficking organisations continuously modify existing practices and develop new ones in response to changing operational conditions, including interdiction efforts, technological developments and shifts in trafficking routes.
Research has shown that innovation in maritime cocaine smuggling is typically incremental rather than revolutionary. Instead of replacing existing trafficking methods, new transportation platforms often emerge alongside established ones, allowing criminal organisations to diversify how cocaine is transported across the maritime domain. As a result, commercial container shipping, fishing vessels, go-fast boats, self-propelled semi-submersibles, underwater cargo devices and at-sea transfer operations frequently coexist as alternative logistical solutions rather than successive stages of technological development.
Innovation is therefore not limited to the design of vessels. Criminal organisations also adapt logistics, concealment techniques and trafficking routes in response to changing operational environments, contributing to the continual diversification of maritime cocaine smuggling methods.
Narco-submarine
Narco-submarines are a common method that cocaine smugglers use to avoid detection. These are frequently used by major Colombian cocaine smuggling organisations and are commonly referred to as the "narco submarine".
The first narco submarine was not intercepted until 2006 by the U.S. Coast Guard off of Costa Rica holding 3.5 tonnes of cocaine. Despite rumours of submarines being used by cartels in the 1990s, this was the first detection.
The number of narco submarine incidents has risen in recent years. The US Coast Guard reported 35 in 2018 and 36 in 2019. United States authorities have admitted they have no idea just how many of these narco submarines go undetected..
The development of self-propelled semi-submersibles illustrates the adaptive nature of maritime cocaine smuggling. Rather than representing a complete replacement for existing trafficking methods, semi-submersibles have developed alongside commercial shipping, fishing vessels and other maritime transportation platforms. Researchers have described their evolution as an example of incremental innovation, in which vessel designs, construction methods and operational practices are continuously modified to improve reliability and reduce the likelihood of detection.
Torpedo In August 2005, authorities discovered an uncrewed semi-submersible in the Pacific Ocean, a "torpedo-style cargo container" (instead of a full-featured self-propelled ship). These versions use a ballast tank (submersion control) to keep them at about under water while towed by a fishing vessel. If a patrol ship is spotted, the "torpedo" cargo container is released. While submerged, it automatically releases a buoy disguised as a wooden log so it would be mistaken for marine debris. This log-buoy is equipped with a location transmitter system so the torpedo can be retrieved, either by the original vessel, or another vessel to retrieve it to continue the delivery. Such a log-buoy was designed to be used as a last resort; risks are involved with the deployment of said buoy: authorities could investigate the sudden appearance of 'marine debris'. authorities could notice signals from the buoy's transmission systems, then attempt to locate such signal(s). Therefore, crews in the towing boat operate under the guise of a fishing vessel to avoid suspicion, and avoiding the risks of deploying the log-buoy.