The administration of territory in dynastic China is the history of practices involved in governing the land from the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to the Qing dynasty (1644–1912).
Administrative divisions in imperial China
County The only level at which state officials actually governed the common people was the county level. Counties were coordinated by prefectures which had on average, about ten counties. Overseeing inspectors were sent out from the central government to oversee the work of the prefectures. During the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties, these arrangements were solidified into permanent provinces. Funding for the local administration came from taxes collected while a portion was set aside for the central government.
Counties (xian ) originally meant "dependencies" ruled by vassals of royal blood. During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), they were coordinated by commanderies (jun ) and expanded throughout the entire empire, but the Han (202 BC–220 AD) returned them to indirect rule by vassals. However, after 100 years, the dependencies were gradually converted into counties or incorporated by 100 BC. In practice, most dynasties started out with some combination of the county and dependency dichotomy and trended towards greater centralization through the county/prefectural system over time.
The county was headed by a "court-appointed official" ( ) responsible for collecting taxes, hearing trials, public order, education, examinations, morality, and religious customs. Counties in politically important areas were assigned to jinshi degree holders while counties in remote areas were assigned to provincial exam graduates (juren). During the Ming dynasty, the percentage of jinshi degree holding magistrates could range from 71% to 5% depending on their assigned area's importance. In theory, each local magistrate's office (yamen) was divided into six sections corresponding to the Six Ministries. By Qing times, additional sections were also added for taxes, document receipt and distribution, and salt. On average, each Qing county had 20-30 clerks working these sections. They were selected by the magistrate and received a government stipend. Working under the clerks were a variety of subofficials and support personnel. The also had runners () doing menial work. In the late 19th century the total number of people employed by the yamen in a county could range from 200 to over 500.
Village Below the county were villages and city wards governed by a combination of magistrates, city governments, local families, and local militia. During Qin and Han times, counties were separated into five rural villages or townships (xiang ). Below rural districts were villages (li ) that contained squads (wu ). Security in these rural districts were handled by a district leader ( ) (ex. Emperor Gaozu of Han). Later dynasties had security institutions composed of several households such as the baojia system.
Provincial administration Regional governments were introduced by the Qin dynasty after it destroyed the last independent hereditary kingdoms. The Qin empire was divided into commanderies (jun), each of which was led by three officials. The Han dynasty identified the rapid concentration of central power as one of the reasons for the Qin downfall and therefore only adopted the commandery/prefectural system for half its territory and installed hereditary kingdoms in the other half. They were gradually brought under Han control and as a result, there were 103 commanderies by the end of Eastern Han (25–220). Thirteen regional inspectorates (cishi ) were established over them. Most of them were named after the Nine Regions and were thus called zhou (province). These provinces, circuits, or inspectorates did not function as provincial governorships. Both the Tang and Song saw these regions as broad areas for Commissioners to coordinate government activity. Each circuit (dao or lu) was assigned four Commissions, each tasked with a different administrative activity: military, fiscal, judicial, and supply.
Permanent provincial administrations developed under the Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Yuan province, called a Branch Secretariat (xing zhongshu sheng ), was governed by two Managers of Governmental Affairs (pingzhang zhengshi ). Sometimes a Grand Chancellor (chengxiang ) was in charge of an entire province. It's uncertain how much central authority the government had over these provinces since they were essentially ruled by Mongol nobles. Between the provinces and the central government were two agencies: the Branch Bureau of Military Affairs (xing shumi yuan ) and the Branch Censorate (xing yushi tai ). The Ming provincial government consisted of three cooperating agencies: the Provincial Administration Commission (chengxuan buzheng shisi ), the Provincial Surveillance Commission (tixing ancha shisi ), and the Regional Military Commission (du zhihui shisi ). They were directed by a Grand Coordinator, whose tenure was indefinite, and a Supreme Commander. Executive officials of the Three Provincial Commissions were called Regional Overseers. The Qing dynasty expanded the number of provinces to 18 by 1850 and did away with the tripartite provincial administration. Qing provinces were governed by a single Governor (xunfu ) who answered to a Governors-general (zongdu ).
Metropolitan The metropolitan area, the capital and its hinterlands, was directly subordinate to the central court and often named as such. During the Yuan dynasty, Khanbaliq and its surroundings were named fuli (lit. abdomen). The Ming court called Nanjing Yingtian fu (lit. responsive to heaven prefecture) and the surrounding area Zhili (lit. directly attached) from 1378 to 1403. After 1403, Beiping and its surrounding region was called Bei zhili (northern zhili), and when it became the capital in 1423, Nanjing's metropolitan area was called Nan zhili (southern zhili). Shuntian and Yingtian prefectures were referred to as Jingfu (capital prefectures). During the Qing dynasty, the Shuntian prefect was allowed to directly memorialize the emperor, but the subprefectures and counties were jointly governed with the governor of Zhili. The capital usually had a higher concentration of military personnel. The Qing settled them just outside Beijing with their own farmland and the parks to the north were also strewn with Banner villages.
Table of administrative divisions Historical Administrative Divisions in China Dynasty Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Qin Commandery (, ) County (, ) Han, Jin Province (, ) Commandery County Sui "Prefecture" (many smaller ) County Tang, Liao Circuit (, ) Prefecture (smaller: ; larger: , ) County Song and Jin Circuit (, ) Prefecture(smaller: ; larger: ; military: /, ); industrial: 監/监, jiān County Yuan Province (, ) Circuit (, ) Prefecture(larger: , ; smaller: , ) County Ming Directly administered province (/)Province () Prefecture (, ) Department () County Qing Directly administered province (/)Province () Prefecture (府, )Independent department (/)Independent subprefecture (/) County (/)Department ()Subprefecture (/, )
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)
After the state of Qin conquered China in 221 BC, the "First Emperor of Qin", Qin Shi Huang, divided the Qin dynasty into 36, and then ultimately, 40 commanderies, which were divided into counties, which were further divided into townships (xiang ). The imperial capital was excluded from the normal administrative units and was administered by a Chamberlain (neishi ). Administrative control of a commandery was divided between a Governor (shou ), who handled general administration, and a Defender (wei ), who supervised military garrisons. Counties were administered by a Magistrate (ling ). Control of a township was divided between an Elder (sanlao ), the moral authority, a Husbander (sefu ), who handled fiscal affairs, and a Patroller (youjiao ), who kept the local peace. Below townships were even smaller divisions of a thousand households, which constituted a neighborhood (ting ), and a hundred households, which constituted a village (li ).
There was no formal system of recruitment for personnel during Qin times. All appointments down to the county level were based on recommendation and decided by the Grand Chancellor and emperor. Tenures were indefinite. Officials could obtain titles graded from 20 to 1 for meritorious service, but such titles were not hereditary, and did not confer a fief to the holder.
Commanderies of the Qin Empire Commandery Chinese Name Counties&Circuits Trad. Simp. 內史 41 Longxi 隴西郡 陇西郡 21 Shang 上郡 21 Beidi 北地郡 15 Yunzhong 雲中郡 云中郡 12 Jiuyuan 九原郡 8 Sanchuan 三川郡 22 Yingchuan 潁川郡 颍川郡 23 Dang 碭郡 砀郡 22 Dong 東郡 东郡 26 Xue 薛郡 22 Donghai 東海郡 东海郡 18 Sichuan 四川郡 25 Huaiyang 淮陽郡 淮阳郡 27 Nanyang 南陽郡 南阳郡 27 Linzi 臨淄郡 临淄郡 10 Jibei 濟北郡 济北郡 9 Taishan 泰山郡 9 Langxie 琅邪郡 6 Jiaodong 膠東郡 胶东郡 8 Jiaoxi 膠西郡 胶西郡 8 Chengyang 城陽郡 城阳郡 5 Hedong 河東郡 河东郡 19 Henei 河內郡 19 Shangdang 上黨郡 上党郡 21 Taiyuan 太原郡 13 Dai 代郡 11 Yanmen 雁門郡鴈門郡 雁门郡 17 Handan 邯鄲郡 邯郸郡 11 Julu 鉅鹿郡 巨鹿郡 10 Hengshan 恆山郡 恒山郡 22 Qinghe 清河郡 4 Hejian 河間郡 河间郡 10 Guangyang 廣陽郡 广阳郡 9 Youbeiping 右北平郡 16 Shanggu 上谷郡 12 Yuyang 漁陽郡 渔阳郡 12 Liaoxi 遼西郡 辽西郡 7 Liaodong 遼東郡 辽东郡 3 Hanzhong 漢中郡 汉中郡 12 Shu 蜀郡 18 Ba 巴郡 11 Nan 南郡 20 Jiujiang 九江郡 13 Lujiang 廬江郡 庐江郡 5 Hengshan 衡山郡 5 Kuaiji 會稽郡 会稽郡 27 Changsha 長沙郡 长沙郡 6 Dongting 洞庭郡 11 Cangwu 蒼梧郡 苍梧郡 13 Xiang 象郡 2 Nanhai 南海郡 5 Guilin 桂林郡 5 Minzhong 閩中郡 闽中郡 1
Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD)
The founder of the Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 28 February 202 – 1 June 195 BC), separated the dynasty's territory between the western half directly controlled by the imperial capital, and the eastern half, ruled by Kings of the Han dynasty. In the areas controlled by the central government, regional hierarchy followed the Qin model of commandery and county. The eastern nobility ruled kingdoms (wangguo ) or marquisates (houguo ) that were largely autonomous until 154 BC when a series of imperial actions gradually brought them under central control. By the end of the millennium they differed from commanderies and counties only in name and were controlled by a Counselor-delegate (guoxiang ) appointed by the central government.
Until 106 BC, the central government supervised the commanderies through touring Censors, but in that year, Emperor Wu of Han formally divided the commanderies into 13 provinces. These provinces were split into commanderies governed by Administrators (taishou, ), who are overseen by Regional Inspectors (cishi, ) of a province. Regional Inspectors and Governors were not allowed to serve in their native commandery. Later Regional Inspectors were replaced by Regional Governors (zhoumu, ) in late Eastern Han, who controlled the provinces directly.
After 104 BC, the imperial capital was governed by the Three Guardians (sanfu ): Metropolitan Governor (jingzhaoyin ), Guardian of the Left (zuopingyi ), and Guardian of the Right (youfufeng ). After 89 BC, these three positions were subordinated by the Military Commandant (sili xiaowei ) who reported directly to the emperor.
Recruitment