Escape and evasion lines in World War II helped people escape European countries occupied by Nazi Germany. The focus of most escape lines in Western Europe was assisting American, British, Canadian and other Allied airmen shot down over occupied Europe to evade capture and escape to neutral Spain or Sweden from where they could return to the United Kingdom. A distinction is sometimes made between "escapers" (soldiers and airmen who had been captured by the Germans and escaped) and "evaders" (soldiers and airmen in enemy territory who evaded capture). Most of those helped by escape lines were evaders.

Some escape and evasion lines such as the Shelbourne or Burgundy Lines were created by the Allies specifically to assist their soldiers and airmen stranded in German-occupied territory. Others were the product of a combination of allied military personnel and local citizens in occupied territory, such as the Pat O'Leary Line. Some escape lines were created and operated by civilians as grass-roots efforts to help people fleeing the Nazis, such as Comet, Dutch-Paris, Service EVA or the Smit-van der Heijden line. They did not restrict themselves to helping military personnel but also helped compromised spies, resisters, men evading the forced labor drafts, civilians who wanted to join the governments-in-exile in London, and Jews.Koreman, Megan (2018), The Escape Line: How the Ordinary Heroes of Dutch-Paris Resisted the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe, New York: Oxford University PressGildea, Robert and Ismee Tames, eds. (2020), Fighters Across Frontiers: Transnational Resistance in Europe, 1936-1948, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 90-108

About 7,000 airmen and soldiers, mostly American, British and Canadian were helped to evade German capture in Western Europe and successfully returned to the United Kingdom during World War II.Foot, M.R.D. and Langley, J.M. (1979), MI9 Escape and Evasion, 1939-1945, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, Appendix I Many of the escape lines were financed in whole or part by MI9 of the British Directorate of Military Intelligence, the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), and other Allied organizations. "Participation in the escape networks was arguably the most dangerous form of resistance work in occupied Europe... The most perilous job of all was handled mostly by young women, many of them still in their teens, who escorted the servicemen hundreds of miles across enemy territory to Spain."Olson, Lynn (2017), Last Hope Island, New York: Random House, p. 289.

The escape and evasion lines described in this article specialized in helping allied soldiers and airmen evade German capture. Active in Vichy France were several international humanitarian organizations, mostly based in the United States, who as part of their work helped civilians, especially Jews, escape the Nazis. See: Refugee workers in Vichy France

Description The work of the escape lines was labor-intensive. Typically, downed airmen were found, fed, clothed, given false identity papers, and hidden in attics, cellars, and people's homes by a network of volunteers. Airmen were then accompanied by guides, also volunteers, to neutral countries. The most common routes were from Belgium and northern France to Spain. Travel through occupied France was mostly by train, followed by a crossing on foot of the Pyrenees mountains into Spain with a local guide (usually paid). Once in Spain the airmen were assisted by British diplomats to travel to Gibraltar and then were flown back to the United Kingdom.Ottis, Sherri Greene (2001), Silent Heroes: Downed Airmen and the French Underground, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, pp. 53-69 An alternate route was to travel from the coast of Brittany to England via small boat.

Late in the war, especially after the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944, the escape lines turned more to sheltering airmen in place or in forest camps to await the arrival of the allied armies rather than helping the airmen to escape occupied Europe. Operation Marathon describes the forest camps.Ottis, p. 145

About 2,000 soldiers, mostly British, and 2,000 British and 3,000 American airmen who had been shot down or crash landed in western Europe evaded German capture or escaped from German imprisonment during the war.Foot and Langley, Appendix I. Most of the soldiers were helped to evade capture because they were left behind in France after the Dunkirk evacuation of British forces in 1940. Most of the airmen were helped from 1942 to 1944 as the air war over Europe intensified. They were assisted by many different escape lines, some of them large and organized, others informal and ephemeral. The Royal Air Forces Escaping Society estimated that 14,000 volunteers worked with the many escape and evasion lines during the war. Many others helped on an occasional basis, and the total number of people who, on one or more occasions helped downed airmen during the war, may have reached 100,000. One-half of the volunteer helpers were women, often young women, even teenagers. Several of the most important escape lines were headed by women.Rossiter, Margaret L. (1986), Women in the Resistance, New York: Praeger, pp 23-24Nichol, John and Rennell, Tony (2007), Home Run: Escape from Nazi Europe, New York: Penguin, p. 470

The work of escape line helpers was dangerous. Given the large numbers of helpers scattered over large areas, escape lines were relatively easy for the Germans to infiltrate. Thousands of helpers were arrested and more than five hundred died in concentration camps or were executed. The attrition of escape line leaders due to German arrest was much higher. In March 1943, only one person, 61-year old Marie-Louise Dissard, remained free to re-invent the Pat O'Leary Line.Ottis, p. 117 In March 1944, only three of a dozen leaders of the Comet Line, the largest and most famous of the lines, were still alive and not in prison.Eisner, Peter (2004), The Freedom Line, New York: William Morrow, p. 259

Initially, escape lines were self-financed by individuals in occupied countries. However, two UK clandestine organizations, mostly MI9 but also Section DF of the Special Operations Executive (SOE), financed the large escape lines. The U.S. clandestine organization MIS-X helped prisoners of war (POWs) escape from German POW camps."MIS-X," National Museum of the United States Air Force, , accessed 5 Feb 2020

The members of the escape and evasion lines were usually unarmed and did not participate in violent resistance to the German occupation. The motto of the Comet Line was Pugna Quin Percutias, 'fight without arms'. To maintain tight security, escape lines usually avoided contacts with armed resistance groups."207 Squadron Royal Air Force", http://www.207squadron.rafinfo.org.uk/wesseling/koekelberg_207_060505.htm, accessed 19 Oct 2019

Escapees and evaders Organized escape and evasion lines operated in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark. The number of airmen evading capture after being shot down or crash landing in western Europe was a small fraction of those killed or taken prisoner. For example, about 22,000 British and American airmen were killed or captured when being downed in France, but only 3,000 are recorded as having evaded capture by the Germans."France-Crashes" , accessed 3 Feb 2010 Moreover, the percentage of airmen who evaded capture in France was higher than in other countries due to the proximity of the Spanish border to France and the short ocean passage to England. Nearly all the airmen downed in Germany were killed or captured, although a few escaped from prisoner of war camps and were helped to avoid re-capture by escape lines.Ottis, pp. 26-27 Lesser-known escape lines operated in eastern Europe mainly to help Polish or Czech soldiers reach the Allies via the Baltic or Italy or to help Jews escape via the Balkans.Gildea, pp 92-92

Escape lines In addition to the escape lines listed below, many others were ephemeral, family-run affairs which have escaped the notice of history. One of the small lines which has received some attention is the Balfe Line near Amiens which was run by a husband, wife, and two teenage sons who hid escaping airmen in a shed in a World War I cemetery with the cooperation of cemetery employees. Many other small escape lines of a similar nature existed.

Belgian National Movement Bordeaux-Loupiac Escape Network Bourgogne (Burgundy) Line Chauny Line Comet Line Denmark Escape Line Dutch-Paris Line Groupe Hoornaert-Dirix Hornoy-le-Bourg Line Francois Line Françoise Line Marie Claire Line Marie-Odile Line Oaktree Line Operation Marathon Operation Pegasus Operation Sherwood Pat O'Leary Line (Pat Line, O'Leary Line, PAO Line) Ponzán group Possum Line (possum = I can in Latin) Service Eva Smit-Van der Heijden Line Shelburne Line VAR line Vic Line

Notable people

Kattalin Aguirre, Basque, Comet Line Robert and Germaine Ayle, French, Comet Line Elisabeth Barbier, French, Comet, Oaktree Line Andrée Borrel, French, Pat Line, SOE agent Vladamir Bouryschkine, American, Oaktree Line Anthony Brooks, British, Pat Line, SOE agent Georges Broussinne, French, Bourgogne Line Jean-Claude Camors, French, Bordeaux-Loupiac Line Donald Caskie, British, Pat Line Pat Cheramy, British, Pat Line Harold Cole, British, Pat Line, German agent Michael Creswell, British diplomat in Spain Virginia d'Albert-Lake, American, Comet Line, Marathon Madeleine Damerment, French, Pat Line, SOE agent Donald Darling, British, MI6 and MI9 agent Monique de Bissy, Belgian, Comet Line Elvire de Greef, Belgian, Comet Line. Fernand de Greef, Belgian, Comet Line Frederick de Greef, Belgian, Comet Line Janine de Greef, Belgian, Comet Line Andrée de Jongh, Belgian, Comet Line Frédéric de Jongh, Belgian, Comet Line Erwin Deman, French, VAR Line Arnold Deppé, Belgian, Comet Line Jacques Desoubrie, Belgian, German agent Prosper Dezitter, Belgian, German agent Marie-Louise Dissard, French, Pat, Francoise Lines Bruce Dowding, Australian, Pat Line Lucien Dumais, Canadian, Shelburne Line Andrée Dumon, Belgian, Comet Line Michelle Dumon, Belgian, Comet Line Antoine d'Ursel, Belgian, Comet Line Ian Garrow, Scottish, Pat Line Victor Gerson, British, Vic Line, SOE agent Florentino Goikoetxea, Basque, Comet Line Baron Jean Greindl, Belgian, Comet Line Albert Guérisse, Belgian, Pat line Nubar Gulbenkian, Armenian, Pat Line Elisabeth Haden-Guest, German, Pat Line Virginia Hall, American, Pat Line, SOE/OSS agent Suzanne Hiltermann-Souloumiac, Dutch, Dutch-Paris Line Paul Hoornaert, Belgian, Groupe Hoornaert-Dirix Catherine Janot, French, Comet Line Albert Edward Johnson, British, Comet Line Herman Laatsman, Dutch, Dutch-Paris Line James Langley, British, MI9 Jacques Legrelle, Belgian, Comet Line Roger Le Neveu, French, German agent Mary Lindell, British, Marie-Clair Line Elsie Maréchal, British, Comet Line Elvire Morelle, French, Comet Line Airey Neave, British, MI9 Jean-François Nothomb, Belgian, Comet Line Louis and Andrée Nouveau, French, Pat Line Andrée Peel, French, VAR Line Francisco Ponzán Vidal, Spanish, Pat Line, Ponzán Group Edgard Potier, Belgian, Possum Line George Rodocanachi, British, Pat Line Josep Rovira i Canals, Catalan, Vic Line, Martín GroupColl, Josep (1978), Josep Rovira, una vida al servei de Catalunya i del Socialisme, Editorial Ariel Amanda Stassart, Belgian, Comet Line Trix Terwindt, Dutch, MI9 Francoise Usandizaga, Basque, Comet Line Peggy van Lier, Belgian, Comet Line Willem Visser 't Hooft, Dutch, Dutch-Paris Line Nancy Wake, Australian, Pat Line, SOE agent Gabrielle Weidner, Dutch, Dutch-Paris Line Johan Hendrik Weidner, Dutch, Dutch-Paris Line Suzanne Warenghem, French, Pat Line Suzanne Wittek, Belgian, Comet Line Edmond "Moen" Chait, Belgian, Dutch-Paris Line

References