The United States achieved independent governance with the Lee Resolution and the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation were adopted in 1781 to establish the federal government. These were succeeded by the Constitution of the United States in 1789, which is the current governing document of the United States. Many of the institutions and customs of the government were established by the Washington administration in the 1790s.
Other foundational elements of the government include the United States Code, the office of the presidency, the executive departments and agencies, Congress, the Supreme Court, and the lower federal courts.
The first era of major change to the government was the Jacksonian Era in the 1830s, which saw changes to the structure of the executive branch and the abolition of the national bank. The nullification crisis in response to high tariffs was the first serious threat to the unity of the United States, with South Carolina threatening secession, but the crisis was averted. Threats of secession reemerged in response to the issue of slavery in the 1860s, resulting in the secession of 11 states to form a rival government, the Confederate States of America. The states were preventing from seceding by the American Civil War and placed under military control before eventually being readmitted.
The Progressive Era brought a new wave of reforms, including the direct election of senators and stronger government regulation of business. These reforms were expanded even further by the New Deal policies implemented in response to the Great Depression, which created programs such as Social Security. Following World War II, American foreign policy was dominated by the Cold War while American domestic policy was influenced by economic development and the civil rights movement. In the 21st century, the September 11 attacks caused major shifts in government structure and foreign policy.
Overview and summary data
Current departments
Since the founding of the United States and in the centuries since then, numerous cabinet departments and agencies have been established as the need arose. The table below provides summary historical data for current Cabinet departments.
Department Seal Flag Formed Employees Total budget Head Title Titleholder State July 27, 1789 30,000 $58.1 billion Secretary of State Marco Rubio Treasury September 2, 1789 100,000 $16.4 billion Secretary of the Treasury Interior March 3, 1849 70,000 $35 billion Secretary of the Interior Agriculture May 15, 1862 100,000 $242 billion Secretary of Agriculture Justice July 1, 1870 113,543 $37.5 billion Attorney General Commerce February 14, 1903 41,000 $16.3 billion Secretary of Commerce Labor March 4, 1913 15,000 $97.5 billion Secretary of Labor Defense 3,200,000 $852 billion Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth Housing and Urban Development September 9, 1965 9,000 $61.7 billion Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Transportation April 1, 1967 55,000 $145 billion Secretary of Transportation Energy August 4, 1977 10,000 $45.8 billion Secretary of Energy Health and Human Services October 17, 1979 65,000 $1.772 trillion Secretary of Health and Human Services Education October 17, 1979 4,200 $79.6 billion Secretary of Education Veterans Affairs March 15, 1989 235,000 $308.5 billion Secretary of Veterans Affairs Homeland Security November 25, 2002 250,000 $101.6 billion Secretary of Homeland Security Kristi Noem
Former departments
Department Formed Removed from Cabinet Superseded by Last Cabinet-level head Title Titleholder War August 7, 1789 September 18, 1947 Department of the ArmyDepartment of the Air Force Secretary of War Navy April 30, 1798 August 10, 1949 Department of Defense(as executive department)became and still are military departments within the Department of Defense Secretary of the Navy Army September 18, 1947 Secretary of the Army Air Force Secretary of the Air Force Post Office February 20, 1792 July 1, 1971 United States Postal Service Postmaster General Commerce and Labor February 14, 1903 March 4, 1913 Department of CommerceDepartment of Labor(The Department of Commerce is considered a continuation of the Department of Commerce and Labor under a new name.)Secretary of Commerce and Labor Health, Education, and Welfare April 11, 1953 October 17, 1979 Department of EducationDepartment of Health and Human Services(The Department of Health and Human Services is considered a continuation of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare under a new name.)Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
Articles of Confederation (1776-1789)
The Second Continental Congress became the first independent federal government of the United States when it declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain on July 4, 1776. It served as a provisional government and oversaw the drafting of the Articles of Confederation. The Continental Congress transitioned into the Congress of the Confederation when it adopted the Articles of Confederation on March 1, 1781, after they were ratified by all 13 states.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress served as the sole body of the legislature. Each state was to send a delegation of two to seven members as appointed by state legislatures, and each delegation was entitled to a single vote in legislative procedures. The federal government held jurisdiction over treaties, alliances, and declarations of war. Approval of these actions required at least nine states to vote in the affirmative. The states were forbidden from raising an army during peacetime, but all states were required to maintain a militia.
The Articles of Confederation tasked the states with raising funds and military strength when requested by the Congress. However, the Articles included no mechanism to compel to states to provide for the federal government, and compliance was voluntary. Modifications to the Articles required the assent of all 13 state delegations, and the Congress rarely had a quorum as there was no mechanism to maintain attendance of delegates. The Congress elected a presiding officer, often referred to as the president. However, this position was merely administrative and had no executive power.
In the 1770s, executive power under the Articles of Confederation was primarily delegated to boards created by Congress. These included the Board of War, the Financial Administration, the Treasury Office of Accounts, and the Navy Board. The Financial Administration was later replaced by a Board of Treasury. Congress also utilized many committees for specific purposes, including foreign affairs and commerce. In 1780, Congress replaced the board system with fixed executive offices, including the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, the Superintendent of Finance, and the Secretary at War. A Secretary of Marine was also created, but its responsibilities were merged with the Superintendent of Finance before the office was ever filled.
Federalist Era (1789-1801)
Adoption of the Constitution (1789)
State delegations met for the Constitutional Convention in 1787. While the convention was initially held to modify the existing Articles of Confederation, the eventual consensus was the drafting of a new constitution. The Constitution of the United States was drafted and ratified, and it came into force on March 4, 1789. The Constitution established a presidential system with separation of powers and three branches of government that are still in use today.
Legislative power was vested in the United States Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of an upper chamber representing each state, the United States Senate, and a lower chamber representing equally divided districts within the states, the United States House of Representatives. At the time, members of the House were directly elected while members of the Senate were chosen by state legislatures. Several powers were delegated to Congress, with a simple majority from both chambers required to pass legislation.
Executive power was vested in the president of the United States and the federal officers that answer to the president. The president was delegated powers to enforce the law, engage in foreign affairs, and oversee the operations of the federal government. The president was also given veto power over Congressional legislation that requires a two-thirds majority from both chambers to overrule. Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court of the United States, composed of judges nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Congress was also given the power to establish lower courts.
Passage of the Bill of Rights, 1789-1791
The Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787–88 debate over the ratification of the Constitution and written to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those in earlier documents, especially the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), as well as the Northwest Ordinance (1787),"The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and its Effects" by Dan Bryan, April 8, 2012, at American History USA website (retrieved September 22, 2020). the English Bill of Rights (1689), and Magna Carta (1215).
Largely because of the efforts of Representative James Madison, who studied the deficiencies of the Constitution pointed out by anti-federalists and then crafted a series of corrective proposals, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment on September 25, 1789, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison's proposal that the proposed amendments be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution (at the relevant articles and sections of the document), they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution.
Presidency of George Washington (1789-1797)
The first actions of the new government did not immediately take place following the Constitution's adoption, as not enough members of Congress had arrived to form a quorum. The electoral votes for president and vice president were counted on April 6, 1789, and George Washington was inaugurated the first president on April 30. The Washington administration marked the beginning of the First Party System with the development of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. Several disputes over the Constitution persisted following its ratification, and ten amendments were made in 1791, which became the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights established several rights that the federal government cannot infringe, including rights to freedom of speech and expression, the right to keep and bear arms, rights of due process, and states' rights.
The three executive departments that existed under the Articles of Confederation were reestablished during Washington's presidency as the Department of State, the Department of War, and the Department of the Treasury. The office of Attorney General was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 to serve as Washington's legal counsel. In 1791, Washington began holding joint meetings with the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Attorney General, who together became known as the presidential cabinet.