The Espiritu Santo languages (alternatively Santo languages) are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.
Languages Two lists of Espiritu Santo languages from Tryon (2010) and François (2015) are provided below.
Tryon (2010) Tryon (2010) recognizes 33 living languages and 2 extinct languages. They are:Tryon, Darrell. 2010. The languages of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. In John Bowden and Nikolaus P. Himmelmann and Malcolm Ross (eds.), A journey through Austronesian and Papuan linguistic and cultural space: papers in honour of Andrew K. Pawley, 283-290. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
Language Speakers Area Villages Valpei (Tavanlav) 300 North-West Santo Wunpuko, Valpei, Petani, Matalip, Pwar, Molpoe, Hakua, Maroa, Pwat, Pwatmwel (Onmwertev), Mwalovuko, Wunapak Nokuku (Vevatot) 250 North-West Santo Olpoe, Nokuku, Lajmoli, Vunon, Penaoru, Petawota 'Oa 300 North-West Santo Tasmate, Sulesal, Vasalea Vunapu 250? North-West Santo Vunapu, Pesena Piamatsina 250? North-West Santo Piamatsina, Piamaeto, Peavot Tolomako (Big Bay) 900 North-West Santo Jureviu, Tuturu, Tavunamalo, Peavot, Vasi, Pialulup, Matantas Kula 350 West Santo Wusi, Kerepua, Elia 1 Bura 300 West Santo Linduri, Putonro, Saktui, Maram, Patiare, Mapten, Nukupospos Kene 300 West Santo Vuimele, Navura, Papaisale, Arumalate, Latavoa, Pilipili, Lepurpuri, Potlavaisevu Akei 4000 West Santo Toramaori, Lalaolo, Tovotovo, Kerevinumbu, Tasiriki, Ukoro, Malovira, Tasmalum Daruru 100? West Santo Pelmol Retlatur 100 South Santo Tanovusivusi Ale 500 South Santo Fimele, Wailapa Aje 10 South Santo Patunmevu, Nambaka, Wunamoli Ande 500 South Santo Tanmet, Lotunai, Ipayato, Tasmalum, Morouas Araki 10 South Santo Araki Island Movono 370 South Santo Tangoa Island Farsav 400 South Santo Nambel, Tanovoli, Narango, Funafosi, Nambauk Tiale / Merei 400 Central Santo Tavuimoli, Nazaraka, Mataipevu, Patuitano, Morokari, Angoru, Tombet, Navele, Vusvogo Kiai 450 Central Santo Wailapa, Fortsenale, Namoru Ko / Mores (Farmores) 200? Central Santo Tanmet, Lemben, Tsarailan, Namafun, Patmarifu, Sarete, Mavunlif Moiso 100 Central Santo Moriuli Toksiki / Soisoru 200 Central Santo Morkriv, Pilnuri, Bengie Tamambo 4000 East Santo Malo Aore extinct East Santo Aore Biliru 3 East Santo Tambotalo, Belnatsa, Beleru, Belembut, Lambue Farafi 300? East Santo Butmas, Tur, Maniok, Shark Bay, Naturuk Ngen 250 East Santo Vanafo (Tanafo), Mon Exil, Palon, Shark Bay Ati (Meris / Miris) 85 East Santo Fumbak, Naturuk, Nambauk Se 20 East Santo Vanafo, Butmas Atin (Farnanatin) 120 East Santo Nambauk (Patunfarambu), Fumatal Farnanto 100 East Santo Nambauk, Tanmet, Tafua Mavea (Lonavu) 500 East Santo Mavea, Aissi, Tutuba Nethalp extinct East Santo Lorediakarkar Nekep 4000 East Santo Hog Harbour, Port Olry, Kole 1
François (2015) The following list of 38 Espiritu Santo languages is from Alexandre François et al. (2015:18-21).
No. Language Other names Speakers ISO 639-3 Region 27 Tolomako Bigbay 900 tlm Espiritu Santo 28 Piamatsina 250 ptr Espiritu Santo 29 Vunapu 380 vnp Espiritu Santo 30 Valpei 300 vlp Espiritu Santo 31 Nokuku 250 nkk Espiritu Santo 32 Meri Tasmate, Oa 300 tmt Espiritu Santo 33 Wusi Kula 350 wsi Espiritu Santo 34 Bura 300 Espiritu Santo 35 Merei Tiale, Lametin 400 lmb, mnl Espiritu Santo 36 Mores Ko 200 mrp Espiritu Santo 37 Ande Morouas 500 Espiritu Santo 38 Toksiki Soisoru, Roria 200 rga Espiritu Santo 39 Kiai Fortsenal 450 frt Espiritu Santo 40 Moiso 100 Espiritu Santo 41 Kene 300 Espiritu Santo 42 Daruru 100 Espiritu Santo 43 Akei Tasiriki 4000 tsr Espiritu Santo 44 Retlatur 100 Espiritu Santo 45 Wailapa Ale 500 wlr Espiritu Santo 46 Farsaf Narango, Nambel 400 nrg Espiritu Santo 47 Varavara Amblong, Aje 300 alm Espiritu Santo 48 Narmoris 220 plb Espiritu Santo 49 Biliru Tambotalo 3 tls Espiritu Santo 50 Atin 120 Espiritu Santo 51 Ati Polonombauk, Meris 85 Espiritu Santo 52 Farnanto 100 Espiritu Santo 53 Se Fanafo 20 Espiritu Santo 54 Sinia Navut 520 nsw Espiritu Santo 55 Butmas-Tur Ati, Farafi 520 bnr Espiritu Santo 56 Ngen Shark Bay 450 ssv Espiritu Santo, Litaro 57 Tholp Nethalp 0 lnn Espiritu Santo 58 Sakao Hog Harbour, Nkep 4000 sku Espiritu Santo 59 Mavea Mav̋ea, Mafea 34 mkv Espiritu Santo, Mavea 60 Tutuba 500 tmi Espiritu Santo, Tutuba 61 Aore 0 aor Espiritu Santo, Aore 62 Tamambo Malo, Tamabo 4000 mla Espiritu Santo, Malo 63 Tangoa Movono 370 tgp Espiritu Santo, Tangoa 64 Araki 8 akr Espiritu Santo, Araki
Lynch (2019) John Lynch (2019) proposes the following classification scheme for the Espiritu Santo languages, with the development of bilabial consonants to linguolabials as the primary marker of the "Nuclear Santo" group:
Espiritu Santo West Santo Group Cape Cumberland: Hukua, Vunapu, Piamatsina (uncertain), Valpei, Nokuku, Tasmate Wusi Central Santo: Merei-Tiale, Okula Kiai Southwest Santo: Akei, Wailapa South-Central Santo (Lynch: "possibly three dialects") Outlier: Tolomako Nuclear Santo Group South Santo Group Tangoa Araki Mavʼea Tutuba Aore Tamambo Outlier: Mores East Santo Group Shark Bay: Shark Bay I, Shark Bay II, Lorediakarkar Southeast Santo: Butmas-Tur, Polonombauk, Tambotalo Outlier: Sakao
References
.