Zichan (WG: Tzu Ch'an) ()In the Lŭchi Chunqiu (2000), p.818, Zichan is translated "Prince Chan". (–522 BCE)See "Career profile" subsection "Path as official" as to his year of birth. was a Chinese statesman during the late Spring and Autumn period. From 543 BCE until his death in 522 BCE, he served as the chief minister of the State of Zheng. Also known as Gongsun Qiao (,Kung-sun ch'iao [Wade-Giles]: Watson, Tso Chuan (1989) p.223. he is better known by his courtesy name Zichan.
As chief minister of Zheng, an important and centrally located state, Zichan faced aggression from powerful neighbours without and fractious domestic politics within. He was a political leader at a time when Chinese culture and society was enduring a centuries-long period of turbulence. Governing traditions had become unstable and malleable, institutions were being battered by chronic war, and new forms of state leadership were emerging but were sharply contested.
Under Zichan the Zheng state prospered. He introduced reforms with strengthened the state and met foreign threats. His statecraft was respected by his peers and reportedly appreciated by the people. Favourably treated in the Zuo Zhuan (an ancient text of history), Zichan drew comments from his near-contemporary Confucius, later from Mencius and Han Fei.
Background
Zhou dynasty By its military defeat in 771 BCE,Creel (1974), p.7: in the 771 defeat of the Zhou by rivals and barbarians, both King You of Zhou (r.781-771) and his uncle Duke Huan of Zheng were killed. later historians divide the Zhou (–221 BCE) into two periods: Western and Eastern, as Zhou moved its capital east over .Li Feng (2013), pp. 160-161: the fall of Western Zhou. The Eastern Zhou period is divided into the Chunqiu and the Zhanguo periods (xx, 182). The dynasty not only never recovered, its regime steadily lost strength during the Spring and Autumn period (770–481 BCE). At its start the Zhou rulers deployed the fengjian system. Differing from feudal estates,In medieval Europe the feudal bond was made by solemn agreement. in ancient China the patriarchal kinship relation formed the primary bond between the royal dynast and the local 'vassal'.Zhang (2014), p.156: in the initial Zhou hierarchy "the imperial and the clan power were integrated." From social rankings, one can infer that "the clan power was the backbone of imperial power."Hsu (1965), p.3. Zhou's local rulers were kin as well as 'enfeoffed' allies, both were addressed as family.Liu (1998), pp. 34-35, 62-63. In addition to fengjian, Liu uses the term zongfa (patriarchal clan) to denote a dual system of Zhou authority: aristocratic, and lineage re the Ji clan.Li Jun (1996): the fengjian system, pp. 67, 71-84; it dissolved during the Eastern Zhou, pp. 103-108, 148.Goldin: Shen (2020), fengjian ranks: nobility Gong, aristocracy Dafu & Shi (pp.116-118). In 770 the new Duke of Zheng helped the new Zhou King move east (p.119). Regular state ceremonies sacrificing for Zhou clan ancestors, made by both royals and vassal rulers, at first strengthened the fengjian system.Chu (, 2021), pp.122-123, 126-127.Chang (1983), pp. 35, 37.Li Jun (1999), p.72: the Zhou dynasty "inherited from Shang [its] system of kinship groups or lineage clans [and] its inextricably related activity--ancestor worship."
State of Zheng Duke Huan (r. 806–771) founded Zheng, being enfeoffed by his brother the Zhou King Xuan (r. 825–782). As close kin, to remain near Zhou's new royal lands, by 767 BCE Zheng state had also moved its capital east.Creel (1974), p.25: "For a time, after the Chou Kings moved east, the rulers of Cheng controlled the royal government". Xinzheng was a walled city with a Grand Ancestral Temple, smaller clan temples, and a "great city gate" that led to the main thoroughfare ();Zuo Zhuan (2016), Xuan 12.1, v.1 at p.639 (wall, temple, gate); clan temples, e.g., Zhao 12.2, p.1471.Zuo Zhuan (1983), Duke Seuen XII ¶1, p.316 (divination per grand temple; enter city "by the Hwang gate"). population estimated at 10,000 (up to 100,000).Goldin: Shen (2018), p.126. Zheng's capital Xinzheng; estimated area (by excavation average) 16 sq.km., a population over 100,000 per average of five like cities in 5th-4th century BCE.Lewis (2000), p.362, 370, differs (per Chunqiu). Large city-states: 9 sq.km., population (inferred) in the 10,000s; minimum 4 sq.km., 1,000s. Public buildings of wood, single story, built on tamped-earth.Falkenhausen (2006), p.133: speculates on population of contemporaneous capital of Jin state: perhaps 12,000 to 20,000.Li Jun (1996), pp. 116-120: population growth during the Eastern Zhou period. Strategically located,Zheng lands were between the weak Zhou King, and Song state, a feudatory remnant of the former Shang. Zheng prospered through trade,Goldin: Chen Shen (2018), pp.128-132: markets and trade of cities. at first fielding strong armies. Under Duke Zhuang (r. 743–701) Zheng in the Battle of Xuge (707) defeated the Zhou King's invasion.Zuo Zhuang (2016), Lord Huan 5.3; vol. 1, pp.91-93,Zuo Zhuan (1983), Duke Hwan Year V ¶6; pp.45-46. Due to his wide influence Duke Zhuang was compared to the Five Hegemons.L&S: Hsu (1999), pp. 550-552: Zheng state history. "Zheng Zhuang Gong was the first to obtain the status of leader of the interstate community" in the north (p.552, quote). Later rulers of that leadership status were called Hegemons. In 673 BCE Zheng attacked the royal capital, killed the usurper, restoring the Zhou King.Li Feng (2013), 162-163. For a time "Zheng was politically and militarily the most active state in all of China." After 715 Zheng allied with Qi and Lu. Yet its power waned for reasons domestic and interstate.Goldin: Shen (2018), of Zheng state: whose first lords were the era's "mightiest figures", later "one of the most powerful" of the early states (p.119). Tombs of Zheng lords excavated 1923 (p.119). Marketplace of Zheng (p.130).Creel (1974): Early Zheng rulers played "a leading role in the royal government" (p.7), Zheng's military victories in 707 and 673 (p.8), its powerful neighbors Jin and Chu (p.9), "The most famous man" of Zheng was Zichan (Tzu-ch'an) (p.10). Its military becoming less effective against its larger state rivals, a vigorous Zheng nonetheless manoeuvred to survive frequent attacks.Goldin: Shen (20118), p.139, between 604 and 547, Chu invaded Zheng nine times, and Jin attacked Zheng twelve times.
During Zichan's youth, the reign of the figurehead Duke Jian of Zheng (r. 566–530) began. Political stability was precarious during the Eastern Zhou. The prior Duke of Zheng, Xi, had been killed by nobles in his ministry.Zuo Zhuan (2016), v.2 p.939, Xiang 7.9(10). Lord Xi of Zheng had failed to accord with "ritual propriety" alarming nobles and his minister Zisi. "Zisi sent brigands to assassinate Lord Xi at night... [claiming his death was] a sudden, serious illness".Lewis (1990), p.40: assassination in Zheng.Editors of Zuo Zhuan (2016), v.3 p.2146 & p.2096. Zisi was a son of Duke Mu of Zheng (r.627-606). Thus, Zisi was one of Zichan's uncles.Theobald (2000), "State of Zheng": Duke Jian (Zheng Jiangong) followed his father Xi (r.570-566). Xi was killed by his minister Zisi. Zichan as leader confronted such political turbulence, yet achieved major civic reforms benefitting the state and its people. Later, during the Warring States (480–221) Zheng state relapsed, when "the centre of the political stage was occupied by the competition between clans".Li Jun (1996), pp. 104, & 105 (quote, per clans of Zheng).Nota bene: the clans of late imperial China had long-since evolved into peaceful, domesticated civic organizations, cf. Liu (1959), while the clans of Zichan's day were armed and often combative. Liu comments, "The family of any size in traditional China was a patronymic, patrilineal, patrilocal, patriarchal kinship group" (p.3). That era's fierce warfare continued among the fewer states. Zheng state met its demise in 375 BCE.L&S: Lewis (1999), p.596: Hann state, one of three arising from the Partition of Jin (403), conquers and annexes Zheng in 375.Theobald (2010), "Zheng": founding, move east, strategic location for trade and war; early hegemony; Zichan as chief minister; Zheng annexed by Han state in 375.Refer below to "Shen Buhai" subsection.
Family of Zichan
Zichan was closely related to the hereditary sovereigns, the Dukes of Zheng state,Hsu (1965), p.5: "In the Ch'un Ch'iu all the states enjoyed de facto sovereignty, and their rulers were equal in this key respect, despite differences in their titles, e.g., kung (duke), hou (marque), po (earl), tau (viscount), nan (baron). For convenience we shall often use the term "dukes" to refer to all rulers of states".Dukes of Zheng were chosen from the ruling lineage or elite ranks, e.g., Duke Xiang (r.605-587), per Zuo Zhuan (2016), v.1 p.609, Lord Xuan 4.2, 605 BCE. hence also more distant kin of the royal Zhou.Pulleyblank (2000), p.7: the Zhou King had delegated as local rulers mostly "members of the royal Ji clan" to defend the Zhou patrimony. As a grandson of Zheng's formidable Duke Mu (r. 627–606),Refer to section "Beliefs, divination" at year 596. Zichan was also called Gongsun Qiao, "Ducal Grandson" Qiao. Zichan was a member of the clan of Guo, one of the Seven Houses of Zheng.L&S: Hsu (1999), "seven houses of descendants of Zheng Mugong" [Duke Mu]. Led by their nobility these various clans competed (at times, by internecine strife) for power and prestige. The Guo lineage was not among the strongest clans of Zheng. Zichan's ancestral surname was Ji, his personal name Ji Qiao.Theobald (2010), "Zichan": Duke Mu (Zheng Mugong), reference to Zichan's Guo clan, and his names.Pines (2002) p.313, lists Gongsun Qiao in "Chunqiu Personalities", his cognomens: Zi Chan and Zi Mei.Kaizuka (; 1956, 2002): Zichan's family descended from Duke Mu, but his clan was "comparatively weak" among the seven houses of Zheng. Zichan, however, was "the son of a noble, and born into a family sufficiently illustrious to qualify him for high office" (p.89 quote; see pp. 75, 93-94).
In 565 BCE Zichan's father, Prince Guo (Ziguo),Prince Guo or Ziguo (Kung-tsze Kwoh among pre-pinyin romanizations), also called Prince Fa [Gonzi Fa]. led a victorious campaign against the State of Cai. His military success, however, risked provoking the hostility of stronger neighbouring states, Jin to the north and Chu to the south. Yet the Zheng leadership appeared pleased. However Zichan, the teenage son of Ziguo, had a different view. He said a small state like Zheng should excel in civic virtue, not martial achievement, else it will have no peace.Zuo Zhuan (2016), v.2 pp. 941-947 (Xiang 8), 957-963 (Xiang 9), 973-975 (Xiang 10). In any event, trouble with the conflicting demands of Jin and Chu lay ahead for Zheng state. In response, Ziguo rebuked Zichan.Zuo Zhuan (2020), Xiang 8.3, p.203. The modern editors here comment (p.202): "Zichan appears as a precocious child, much to the dismay of his elders, a common trope in early Chinese literature."Zuo Zhuan (1983), Duke Seang VIII ¶3, p.435. His father addresses him as "a boy like you".Han Feizi (1959), v.2, p.84. His father advised Zichan: not to alienate other ministers.Rubin (1965), p.15: Zichan presented as being skeptical of war.Eichler (1886), p.13: Zichan's father Prince Fa (Kung-tsze Fah, also Kung-tsze Kwoh), as Zheng's minister of war, was celebrated for the raid on [Cai], except for criticism by his son Tsze-ch'an [Zichan]. Despite being rebuked, Zichan was made a "high dignitary at the early age of nineteen" (p.14). Three years after the Cai victory, during a revolt by rival nobles of Zheng, Zichan's father Ziguo was assassinated.Theobald (2010), "Zichan": Zheng victory; death of his father Gongzi Fa.Rubin (1965), pp. 11-12. His father Tzu-kuo [Ziguo] killed in 562.Refer to section "Path as state official" below.
Career profile Path as state official