There are many false friendships between the Chinese and Japanese languages. These are words that look or sound similar to those in another language but have a significantly different meaning. The majority of these false friends result from the use of Chinese traditional characters in the Japanese script.
History
According to Chinese legend, Chinese characters were invented by Cangjie, one of the bureaucrats under the Yellow Thearch, who coined symbols known as "zi (字) following a study of the landscape, animals, and galaxy in the sky. "Zì" (字) was said to be the first Chinese character created, and Cangjie supposedly related it to a mythical story of the day these characters were created.
Chinese words and characters were introduced to Japan through letters, coins, swords, and seals imported from China. As far as is currently known, King of Na gold is the earliest import bearing Chinese characters. This gold was presented to Yamato by Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Japanese of this era most likely had no knowledge of scripts and seem to have remained illiterate until the fifth century.
The earliest known Japanese documents were written by Korean officials and bilingual Chinese employed at the Yamato court. Afterwards, a group of people known as the fuhito were organised under the monarch to read and write Chinese characters. The Yamato court began sending full-scale diplomatic missions to China, leading to increased literacy within the Japanese court. The Chinese characters could be stencilled onto thin rectangular strips of wood, which aided communication during this time.
As a result of the aforementioned lack of a Japanese writing system, Chinese was used almost exclusively in texts. The Heian period (794–1185) facilitated the emergence of a system known as kanbun, which involved the use of Chinese text with diacritical marks that allowed Japanese speakers to read and restructure Chinese sentences. Chinese characters also came to be used in writing Japanese words phonetically, resulting in modern kana syllabaries. Japan adopted a writing system known as man'yōgana and used it to write the ancient poetry anthology Man'yōshū. This anthology used a number of Chinese characters.
Adaptation of kanji In modern Japanese, kanji is integrated into writing systems through content words such as adjective stems, noun, and verb stems. The growth experienced in the integration of kanji in writing systems has increased the number of false friends existing between the Chinese and Japanese languages. In some instances, kanji is considered difficult to read relating to the context applied. For instance, hiragana and katakana are writing systems that descend from kanji and have characters that are used to write phonetic complements, adjective endings, and inflected verbs used to disambiguate readings and give simple definitions to some miscellaneous words that are hard to comprehend in the writing systems.
Chinese characters are among the most widely adopted and oldest writing systems. In addition, the Chinese characters are integrated into the learning systems of most nations in East Asia and predominate in China and Japan. Consequently, most of the characters used in Japanese kanji adopt their meaning from the Chinese logographic characters. Functional literacy in written Chinese requires knowledge of between three and four thousand characters, as shown in Chinese studies.
Both Japanese kanji and Chinese characters were simplified around the World War II era (shinjitai and the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme, respectively). There are numerous national standard lists of characters, pronunciations, and forms that are distinctly defined by Japanese kanji and Chinese writing systems. In Japanese orthography, a substantial number of common characters have simplified forms that have been used since the end of WWII. Most uncommon characters are written in Japanese traditional forms that are identical or nearly identical to the Chinese traditional forms. Characters have been simplified in Mainland China as well. Today, many characters are used with similar pronunciation and structure but have different meanings according to the respective languages.
Cultural effects False friends in writing systems occur when words in two distinct languages resemble each other in structural appearance or sound but have a different meaning. False friends can be identified as homophones, although they are culturally bound since they are defined in two particular languages. False friends have impacts on the cultural definition of the societies using the languages. For instance, the Chinese language uses numerous characters that define its language. Japanese kanji that emanate from Chinese traditional characters define the Japanese language. Consequently, the Japanese language has most of its words borrowed and developed from the Chinese tradition. The two distinct languages tend to share a similar linguistic history, which is characterised by the use of homographs in the language. However, the fact that the two languages share a similar linguistic history has motivated the usage of similar words in the languages that have distinct meanings.
The Chinese and Japanese languages use words that are similar but have different pronunciations and meanings in their respective languages. The Chinese and Japanese languages have numerous false friends. False friends present linguistic homographs and synonyms based on the culturally and societally bound languages. Among the cultural effects are contresense, which occurs when a writer uses a false friend in a context whose meaning is the opposite of the original meaning. In modern society, writing systems have been improved following the increased number of characters integrated into the systems. The difference in pronunciation and meaning indicates homograph elements in false friends. This supports the fact that the Japanese language was developed from literary Chinese.
Most of the Chinese and Japanese false friends arise through various actions of semantic change. Since most of the Japanese language characters are borrowed from the Chinese language, there is a shift that defines the similarity of the context presented. This motivates the need to be careful while writing since the meanings between the paired languages have very different raising definitions that differ in very distinct contexts. Chinese and Japanese cultures have distinct social and cultural activities that define different terminologies that determine the nature of the context to be published. A bilingual writer seeking to publish context in Chinese and Japanese needs to be aware of false friends in order to present context that draws similar meaning to both languages. Most language learners fall into the false friends trap in the learning process.
List of false friends This list highlights some commonly encountered false friends. Characters Gloss Chinese Japanese Chinese Japaneseprivate, selfish or personalI, me, myselfmother; womandaughter; girlsoup (in Classical Chinese: hot water)hot water; hot springto wait upon; to servesamurai; servantto walk (in Classical Chinese: to run; Cantonese: to run, leave)to runprincess consortqueen consortshedshelfwristarmbirdcan refer to either a chicken or a bird (dependent on context)pigboartoilet papera letter (of the postal variety)the action of forcing somebody to do something; grudging; reluctant; barely adequatestudyautomobile and motor vehiclea steam locomotivesir, mister or teacherteachera lover or mistress; a spouse, wife or husband (PRC only)a lover or mistressto be related; to be involved; to be entailedsolidaritywifeold womanvillain, person of low status/character (dialects such as Wu: child)child, small personhusband or brave gentlemana hero, durable, unbreakable or robustness; healthsailboatballoona demon; wicked spirit; the devila hindrance, obstacle or nuisancevery; extremely; (formal) extraordinary; unusualsomething unusual; extraordinary; emergency or unusualthe year before last yearlast year; the previous yearaspectdirectionintelligence; information (of a military or espionage nature)news, information or gossipself-criticismresearch; study; investigation; discussionnewsnewspaperthe act of restraining; a constraintan appointment or promisescheme; to plot againstmental arithmeticthe material world; human societyhuman; (archaic) the world in which people live, the world, societyto speaka folktale or storyto hand over; to explain; to confessalternation; change; relief; (work) shift; taking turnsformat; modelformality; social rules; social standing; math expressionto socialize; social activity; dinner partya retort; a responseginsengcarrotto be at easeto be in a trancehotela Japanese traditional-style innsocial traditionsocial customs; the sex industry (euphemistically)atrium or courtyard (in Classical Chinese: patio)ceilingthe Middle Agesa second-hand itemhappiness; fun; joy; pleasureease; comfortthe act of advertising; to parade; to brag or to boaststanding for someone; advocacya bathrobeyukata, a type of light robe mainly used for casual wearclose friends and relatives collectivelya close friendsyntax and wording in a given manuscripta complainthollow of one's palmconsiderationmedical doctormedical studenttonsil (chiefly PRC)amygdalatramelectric multiple unit train
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