Chuanqi is a form of fictional short story or novella in Classical Chinese first formed in the Tang dynasty. The term often refers specifically to fictions written in the Tang dynasty, in which case the fictions are also called Tang chuanqi or chuanqi wen. Chuanqi originated from the zhiguai xiaoshuo of the Six Dynasties, was first formed in Early Tang dynasty, became popular in Middle Tang and dwindled in the Song dynasty. Chuanqi has four main themes: love, gods and demons, xiayi (heroes and knights-errant), and history.

Unlike general biji xiaoshuo and zhiguai xiaoshuo, most chuanqi stories have a complicated plot with twists and detailed descriptions and are meaningful literary creations instead of mere recordings of factual events. They are some of the earliest Chinese literature written in the form of short and medium-length stories and have provided valuable inspiration for fiction and drama in later eras. Many were preserved in the 10th-century anthology Taiping Guangji (Extensive Records of the Taiping Era).Idema and Haft, p. 139.

Well-known works of chuanqi

Youxian ku by Zhang Zhuo; The World Inside a Pillow and Renshi Zhuan (The Story of Lady Ren) by Shen Jiji; Yingying's Biography by Yuan Zhen; The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu by Jiang Fang; The Tale of Li Wa by Bai Xingjian The Governor of Nanke by Li Gongzuo; The Tale of Hongxian by Yuan Jiao; Du Zichun by Niu Sengru Tale of the Transcendent Marriage of Dongting Lake by Li Chaowei; Nie Yinniang by Pei Xing; Chang Hen Ge Zhuan by Chen Hong; The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest by Du Guangting.

Definition

In the early 1920s the prominent author and scholar Lu Xun prepared an anthology of Tang and Song chuanqi which was the first modern critical edition of the texts and helped to establish chuanqi as the term by which they are known. There is no clear definition of chuanqi, and there are debates regarding what fictions precisely should be included as chuanqi. Some scholars have argued that it is not to be used as a general term for all Tang dynasty stories. The scholars Wilt Idema and Lloyd Haft see chuanqi as a general term for stories written in classical Chinese during the Tang and Song dynasties (excluding bianwen Buddhist tales written in the colloquial). Certain scholars hold the opinion that all fictional stories written in Classical Chinese except Biji xiaoshuo are chuanqi, thus making the Qing dynasty the last dynasty where chuanqi was written. These scholars hold that many of the stories in Pu Songling's 17th-century collection Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio are chuanqi.Y. W. Ma and Joseph S. M. Lau. ed., Traditional Chinese Stories: Themes and Variations. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978; Reprinted: Boston: Cheng & Tsui, 1986. ), pp. xxi-xxii. In this case, chuanqi is sometimes translated as "marvel tales."

Characteristics The chuanqi of the Tang period frequently use incidental poems, set their story in the national capital Chang'an, finish with an instructive moral, and are narrated by someone who claims to have seen the events himself. These stories consisted of anecdotes, jokes, legends, and tales involving mystical, fantastical or legendary elements. The authors did not want to present their works as fiction, but modeled themselves on the literary style of the biographies in the official histories. They went so far as to credit specific people as authorities for the story, however fantastic, and give particular times and places as settings. The authors of these tales were also more careful about the art of storytelling than authors of earlier works, and a number of them have well-developed plots."The form and content of Chuanqi," in Wilt Idema and Lloyd Haft. A Guide to Chinese Literature. (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1997; ), pp. 134-139.

The narrative structure of chuanqi is under great influence from Records of the Grand Historian. Therefore, like in historic records, chuanqi usually begins with basic information of the main character—their year of birth and death, origin, noteworthy ancestors and their titles—and end with comments on the event or the character. The origin of the story would also be explained so as to prove its authenticity. Poetry, both in regulated verse and folk song style, is largely used to express emotions, describe a person or scenery, make comments or to mark a turn in the plot. Structure-wise, it is important for chuanqi to have a complete structure and the best works usually meet this standard while having a complex plot. Characterisation-wise, emphasis is laid on the description of a character's psychology and the portrayal of round characters, which is achieved by drawing attention to details and providing different perspectives. Renshi zhuan by Shen Jiji, for example, allows readers to see the characters from multiple perspectives and, with its witty dialogues, gives a cleverly drawn picture of the triangular relationship of the characters. Yingying's Biography has also created layered characters. Technique-wise, compared to fictions from the Six Dynasties, chuanqi is better at describing scenery, emotions, setting atmosphere and achieving these goals with poetry. Content-wise, its purpose having developed from telling strange stories to reflecting reality, chuanqi has a large range of themes and reflects different aspects of the society. Taking Yingying's Biography as an example, it reflects the phenomenon that men with a certain social status would do anything to marry a woman of the same status, even abandoning the love they shared with a common woman.

Development In the Tang dynasty, the increasing social productivity and booming economy led to rising demand for entertainment and cultural activities. The development of urban economies also offered a variety of themes and source material for writers. Intellectuals began to write invented stories in order to show off their literary talent. All these factors resulted in the popularity of chuanqi.

Certain scholars believe that candidates of the imperial examination in the Tang dynasty often handed in works of chuanqi so as to gain favour from the examiners, which led to the popularity of the form of fiction. An example is that Ji xuan guai lu by Li Fuyan was written during an examination. However, some scholars think this belief is without foundation.

Early and High Tang Chuanqi appeared during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian. In Early and High Tang, the number of chuanqi written was limited and their general quality was not as high. The works of that period also bear heavy influence from the zhiguai xiaoshuo popular in the Six dynasties. Only three works are extant today: Gu jing ji supposedly by Wang Du, Supplement to Jiang Zong's Biography of a White Ape by an anonymous author and You xian ku by Zhang Zhuo. They were all written during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian. None of the chuanqi written in High Tang still remains.Among the three, Supplement to Jiang Zong's Biography of a White Ape is considered to be of the highest quality. In the story, after a white ape abducts a beauty, the husband of the woman enters the ape's palace, kills the white ape and rescues her. The complex personality of the white ape is portrayed in a realistic and fascinating way, making the story a classic among early works of chuanqi. You xian ku recounts the love affair a man has with two female immortals; graphic description of intercourse can be found in the story.

Middle Tang Middle Tang was the golden age of chuanqi. There was a great number of new writers and new works. The stories of this period are generally of high quality and rich in both content and form. Although the influence of the old gods and demons fiction still lingered, many stories had begun to reflect reality instead of telling mere fantasies.The themes are mainly satire, love and history, among which love is the best explored. Some of the best chuanqi are love stories about unions and separations. Representative chuanqi about love include Yingying's Biography by Yuan Zhen, The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu by Jiang Fang and The Tale of Li Wa by Bai Xingjian. They all have a diversity of realistic characters, which make them the classics. Renshi Zhuan written in 781 AD by Shen Jiji is a masterpiece. It marks the beginning of a new era for Tang fiction, where chuanqi was separate from the traditional gods and demons stories and where the focus of a story shifted from the recounting of strange events to the literary use of language and the portrayal of characters. In Renshi Zhuan, Renshi, a fox spirit, seduces the impoverished scholar Zheng. Although Zheng discovers that she is actually a fox, he continues the relationship. Because of his genuine affection and the help of his relative Wei Yin, Renshi marries Zheng as his concubine. At some point, Wei also falls in love with the beautiful Renshi and courts her, but Renshi, being true, is unmoved and refuses him. Years later, Zheng has to journey to take up an official post and wants Renshi to go with him. Renshi is unwilling but is eventually persuaded. She is killed on their way by hounds.Another notable chuanqi is Liushi zhuan by Xu Yaozuo, a story about the courtesan Liushi and her lover Han Hong. Liushi is abducted by a foreign general in a rebellion before being rescued by the fierce warrior Xu Jun and finally reunited with Han Hong.After the 820s, intellectuals gradually lost interest in writing chuanqi.

Late Tang In the Late Tang, it was once again the trend for chuanqi writers to tell mysterious stories unrelated to real life. During this era, many works emerged about youxia "heroes and knights-errant". The Tale of Wushuang by Xue Diao, Kūnlún nú and Nie Yinniang by Pei Xing, Hongxian Zhuan by Yuan Jiao and The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest by Du Guangting are famous examples. Kūnlún nú is the story of a Negrito slave who saves the lover of his master from a harem. Nie Yinniang tells the amazing story of Nie Yinniang's youth—how she learns martial arts and spells under the guidance of an extraordinary Buddhist nun, chooses her own husband, which is unorthodox considering the time period, and does heroic deeds. A Daughter of the Wei Family by an anonymous author is also a well-known chuanqi written in this period.

Song dynasty The number of chuanqi written in the Song dynasty is few. Some examples are Luzhu zhuan and Yang Taizhen wai zhuan by Yue Shi, Wu yi zhuan by Qian Yi or Liu Fu and Li Shishi wai zhuan by an anonymous author. Among these, the works of Yue Shi are the most outstanding. In the Song dynasty, because the prominent philosophy, Neo-Confucianism promoted that literature should be a vehicle for ideology, highlighted the educational function of literature and in turn disapproved of unorthodox plots, the freedom and creativity of authors were limited. In the meantime, the rise to popularity of vernacular novels reduced novels in classical Chinese to second place and also led to the decline of chuanqi. The only fictional work from this period that can be counted as chuanqi is Zhi cheng Zhang zhu guan.

Ming and Qing dynasties In Ming and Qing dynasties, vernacular novels were far more popular than those written in classical Chinese. Many of the latter imitated the themes and writing of chuanqi from Tang and Song dynasties. Certain scholars also categorise them in a broad sense as chuanqi. Typical works from this period include "Jin feng chai ji" from Jiandeng Xinhua by Qu You, The Wolf of Zhongshan by Ma Zhongxi, and "The Taoist of Lao Mountain", "Xia nu" and "Hong Yu" from Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio by Pu Songling. Notably, both chuanqi and biji are included in Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.

Themes Tang chuanqi has four main themes:

Love