Simurrum (: Si-mu-ur-ri-im) was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BC to 1500 BC, during the period of the Akkadian Empire down to Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears from records after the Old Babylonian period. It has been proposed that in Old Babylonian times its name was Zabban, a notable cult center of Adad though this name is mostly known from much later texts.George, A., "The Sanctuary of Adad at Zabban? A Fragment of a Temple List in Three Sub-columns", BiOr. 65, pp. 714–717, 2008Weidner, Ernst, "Simurrum Und Zaban", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 15, pp. 75–80, 1945 Zabban is noted as a cult center of Adad into the Neo-Babylonian period.Schwemer, Daniel, "The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies Part I", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 7.2, pp. 121-168, 2007 There were actually two towns named Zabban. One has a proposed location of Sulaima¢n Beg (44°40'52" E,Long 34°47'19" NLat).Frayne, Douglas R., "The Zagros campaigns of the Ur III kings", Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 3, pp. 33-56, 2008 Simurrum was a neighbor and sometimes ally with the Lullubi kingdom.Meissner, Bruno, "Simurru", Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, vol. 22, no. 1-6, pp. 69-70, 1919
History
The Simurrum Kingdom seems to have been part of a belt of Hurrian city states in the northeastern portion of Mesopotamian area.Hallo W.W., "Simurrum and the Hurrian Frontier", Revue Hittite et Asianique, pp. 71-81, 1978 They were often in conflict with the rulers of Ur III.Douglas Frayne, "Simurrum", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 707-716, 1990 Mesopotamian sources refer to them as "highlanders".Sallaberger, W., "Ur III-Zeit", in W. Sallaberger and A. Westenholz (eds.), Mesopotamien: Akkade und Ur III-Zeit, Orbus Biblicus et Oriemtalis 160/3. Fribourg: Universitätsverlag / Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, pp. 121–390, 1999
Several inscriptions suggest that Simurrum was quite powerful, and shed some light on the conflicts around the Zagros area. Four inscriptions and a relief (now in the Israel Museum) of the Simurrum have been identified at Bitwata near Ranya in Iraq, and one that was originally thought to be from Simurrum ruler Iddi(n)-Sin based on a curse formula that was found at Sarpol-e Zahab in Iran but is now known to be of Lullubim ruler (An)Nubanin.Fouadi, A. H. A., "Inscriptions and Reliefs from Bitwata", Sumer, vol. 34, no. 1-2, pp. 122–29, 1978Mofidi-Nasrabadi, Behzad, "Rock Reliefs of Sar-e Pol-e Zohab", Historical Sciences Studies 16.2, pp. 219-263, 2025
Early Bronze Age Akkadian Period The Simurrun were regularly in conflict with the Akkadian Empire. The names of four years of the reign of Sargon of Akkad describe his campaigns against Elam, Mari, Simurrum, and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state):
One unknown year during the reign of the Akkad king Naram-Sin was recorded as "the Year when Naram-Sin was victorious against Simurrum in Kirasheniwe and took prisoner Baba the governor of Simurrum, and Dubul the ensi (ruler) of Arame".Cohen, Mark E., "A New Naram-Sin Date Formula.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 227–32, 1986 Arame is known to be associated with Eshnunna. An Old Babylonian letter also associates Simurrum with Eshnunna. This suggests Simurrum was in the area of that city.Finkelstein, J. J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–7, 1955
A king, mentioned in The Great Revolt against Narām-Sîn, was mPu-ut-ti-ma-da-al.J. G. Westenholz, "Legends of the Kings of Akkade", Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997
After Akkad fell to the Gutians, the Lullubians and the Simurrums rebelled against the Gutian ruler Erridupizir, according to the latter's inscriptions:
At one point, Simurrum may have become a vassal of the Gutians.
Ur III Period The Ur III empire was frequently in conflict with the city. The 44th year name of the second ruler, Shulgi (c. 2094–2046 BC), was "Year Simurrum and Lullubum were destroyed for the ninth time". In one of these conflicts Shulgi captured the ruler of Sumurrum, Tabban-darah, and sent him to exile in Drehem. Sillus-Dagan is known to have been a governor of Simurrum under Ur III at the time of ruler Amar-Sin.Owen, David I., and S. Graziani, "The royal gift seal of Ṣilluš-Dagan, Governor of Simurrum." Studi sul Vicino Oriente antico dedicati alla memoria di Luigi Cagni 61, pp.815-846, 2000Collon, Dominique, "The Life and Times of TEḪEŠ-ATAL", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 129–36, 1990 It has been suggested that he was an Amorite.Meijer, Diederik J. W., "Marginal and Steppic Areas as Sources for Archaeological Debate: A Case for “Active Symbiosis” of Town and Country", Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 163-178, 2014 Four texts from Drehem with seals mentioning him have been found, including:
For a time, Simurrum was in alliance with Ur and a diplomat from Simurrum, Kirib-ulme, is recorded as active during Amar-Sin (c. 2046–2037 BC) years 8 and 9 into Shu-Sin (c. 2037–2028 BC) years 1 and 2.Sharlach, T. M., "Diplomacy and the rituals of politics at the Ur III court", Journal of Cuneiform Studies 57, pp. 17–29, 2005 During the rule of Su-Sin in the waning years of the Ur III Empire an administrator assigned to build the Mardu Wall reported "When I sent for word (to the area) between the two mountains it was brought to my attention that the Mardu were camped in the mountains. Simurrum had come to their aid. (Therefore) I proceeded to (the area) "between" the mountain range(s) of Ebih in order to do battle".
Military struggles continues up to the time of the final ruler of Ur III, Ibbi-Sin (c. 2028–2004 BC) with his third year name reporting destroying Simurrum.Jacobsen, Thorkild., "The Reign of Ibbī-Suen.". Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, 1953 Simurrum seems to have become independent after the collapse of Ur III.
In order to make peace with a fellow ruler Turukki leader Zaziya (Ur III period) handed over a ruler of Simurrum:
Middle Bronze Age Isin-Larsa period Simmurum is known from writings found at Eshnunna dated to the reign of Isin ruler Ishbi-Erra (c. 2017-1986 BC). Three officials from Simurrum are mentioned, Teheš-atal, Zili-ewri, and Ili-dannu. The ruler of Simurrum at that time was Iddi(n)-Sin, followed by his son Anzabazuna. R. M. Whiting Jr., "Old Babylonian Letters from Tell Asmar", Assyriological Studies 22, Oriental Institute, 1987 Altaweel, Mark, et al., "New investigations in the environment, history, and archaeology of the Iraqi hilly flanks: Shahrizor Survey Project 2009–2011", Iraq 74, pp. 1-35, 2012
Several Kings (𒈗, pronounced Šàr, "Shar", in Akkadian) of Simurrum are known, such as Iddin-Sin and his son Zabazuna.Seidl, U., "Das Relief, in A. Shaffer and N. Wasserman, Iddi(n)-Sin, King of Simurrum: A New Rock Relief Inscription and a Reverential Seal", ZA 93, 39-52, 2003 Various inscriptions suggest that they were contemporary with king Ishbi-Erra (c. 1953-1920 BC).
Old Babylonian period Accepting the equivalence of Simurrum and Simurru, certainly the later was in the same area, a letter from Shamshi-Adad I of Ekallatum states, in a letter found at Tell Shemshara:
Rulers of Simurrum
The kings and governors of the kingdom or province of Simurrum.
Akkadian Period, Early Bronze IVA Ka-Nisba of Simurrum, instigated Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt against the Gutian ruler Erridu-Pizir.
Ur III Period - Early Bronze IVB - Province Tabban-darah under Shulgi of Ur III Sillus-Dagan under Amar-Sin of Ur III
Kingdom - Middle Bronze I - Independent Iddi-Sin Zabazuna, son of Iddi-Sin.Whiting, Robert M., "Four Seal Impressions From Tell Asmar", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 34, pp. 30–35, 1987 Another, nonruling, son of Iddi-Sin, Kubbutum, is known from a silver bowl inscription.Wasserman, Natha, "An Inscribed Metal Bowl of Iddin-Sîn King of.", The IOS Annual Volume 25, Memories Near and Far, 25, pp. 56-64, 2025
Location There is general agreement that the city lies east of the Tigris River in the valleys and semi-mountainous of the Trans-Tigridian area.Forrer, Emilio O., "Die Provinzeinteilung Des Assyrischen Reiches", Leipzig: J. C.Hinrichs, 1920Gelb, Ignace Jay, "Hurrians and Subarians", Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 1944
It has been proposed that the city was on the Diyala River (which begins as the Sirwan River in Iran).Frayne, D.R., "On the location of Simurrum" in Crossing Boundaries and Linking Horizons: Studies in Honor of Michael C. Astour, pp. 243-269, 1997Frayne, D.R., "Simurrum", in Reallexikon Der Assyriologie 12/7–8, pp. 508–11, 2011
An early Assyriologist suggested Simurrum was near "Tell 'Ali" which is not far from mouth of the Lower Zab on its left bank and is on the direct line from Assur to Arrapha (Kirkuk), which it is west of, saying "The region south of Tell 'Ali has never been examined by archaeologists, but seems to contain numerous ruined towns and canals".Albright, W. F., "Notes on the Topography of Ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 46, pp. 220–30, 1926 Twenty five cuneiform tablets from the Middle Assyrian period were found at the site.Ismail, Bahijah Kh., and J. Nicholas Postgate, "A Middle Assyrian Flock-Master's Archive from Tell Ali", Iraq, vol. 70, pp. 147–78, 2008Ismail, Bahijah Kh., "Informationen iiber Tontafeln aus Tell-Ali", in H. Klengel (ed.), Gesellschaft und Kultu im alten Vorderasien, Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des alten Orients 15, Berlin, 1982
The site of Qala Shirwana, a large mound tall with an additional citadel at the top in the southern basin of the Diyala river, on its west bank, near the modern town of Kalar, has been suggested as the site of Simurrum.Casana, Jesse, and Claudia Glatz, "The land behind the land behind Baghdad: archaeological landscapes of the upper Diyala (Sirwan) river valley", Iraq, vol. 79, pp. 47–69, 2017 The upper mound has an area of 5.5 hectares. While the site is completely built over now, early satellite photographs indicate that there was a 100 hectare lower town. Second millennium BC pottery is often found during construction.Glatz, Claudia, and Jesse Casana, "Of highland-lowland borderlands: Local societies and foreign power in the Zagros-Mesopotamian interface", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 44, pp. 127-147, 2016
Altun Kupri, on the Little Zab river, has also been suggested.Meek, Theophile James, "The Akkadian and Cappadocian Texts from Nuzi", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 48, 1932, pp. 2–5, 1932
A complication is that when a city-state captured large numbers of soldiers etc. they were sometimes placed in rural settlements named after their origin, a practice that continued into Neo-Babylonian times. There were settlements near Girsu/Lagash named Lullubu(na) and Šimurrum for example.Steinkeller, Piotr, "Corvée labor in Ur III times", From the 21st Century BC to the 21st Century AD 10 (2013), pp. 327-424, 2018
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