The history of Indian foreign policy refers to the foreign relations of modern India post-independence, that is the Dominion of India (from 1947 to 1950) and the Republic of India (from 1950 onwards).
Nehru's foreign-policy: 1947–1966
Jawaharlal Nehru, as prime minister 1947-1964, usually with the assistance of Krishna Menon, shaped the new nation's foreign policy. Nehru served concurrently as Minister of External Affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service. He dealt with five major issues:David M. Malone et al. eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) pp 92–103.C.H. Heimsath, Surjit Mansingh, A diplomatic history of modern India (1971) online
Partition of India and Relations with Pakistan: One of the major foreign policy issues that India faced after its independence in 1947 was the violent partition of the subcontinent and the emergence of Pakistan as a separate state. India and Pakistan had tense relations due to border disputes, which led to several wars between the two countries, including the first war in 1947-1948 and the second in 1965.Malone, e Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) pp 370–83 Relations with China: Another major foreign policy challenge for India during this period was its relationship with China, a neighbor to the north. India recognized the People's Republic of China in 1950 and established diplomatic relations with it, but border disputes led to the Sino-Indian War of 1962.Malone, e Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) pp 356–369. Non-alignment: India also pursued a policy of non-alignment during the Cold War. Nehru played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement, which consisted of developing countries that were not aligned with either the Western (pro-American) or Eastern (pro-Russian) blocs.Itty Abraham, "From Bandung to NAM: Non-alignment and Indian foreign policy, 1947–65." Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 46.2 (2008): 195-219. online Nehru never gave up his grandiose dream of forging some sort of international coalition of non-colonial and the colonized powers. However the world was rapidly bifurcated by the emergence of the Cold War between the West, led by the United States and Britain, and the East, led by the Soviet Union. Nehru decided it was urgent to develop policies regarding the Cold War, as well as relations with Pakistan, Britain, and the Commonwealth. Other plans could wait. Nehru and the Congress looked on the Soviet Union with distrust, reassuring the West that there was not the least chance of India lining up with the Soviet Union in war or peace.Sarvepalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography. 1947–1956. Volume Two (1979) 43–65. Nehru intensely disliked the Cold War—the more India got involved, he believed, the worse for his long-term objectives of economic and national development. He took the lead in the non-aligned movement.Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A World History (2017) pp 423–448. Kashmir Conflict: The issue of dividing the largely Muslim state of Kashmir was a major foreign policy challenge for Nehru. India and Pakistan both claimed the entire region and fought several wars over how it was divided. The United Nations tried but failed to find a solution. At the United Nations, the Soviets supported Pakistan on Kashmir and there was a move to demand arbitration or a plebiscite, but India steadfastly repudiated the notions. Nehru insisted that Indian troops would not be withdrawn from Kashmir.Subrata K. Mitra, "Nehru's policy towards Kashmir: Bringing politics back in again." Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 35.2 (1997): 55-74. Economic Development: India also faced the challenge of promoting economic development and securing foreign aid and investment to achieve this goal. India sought aid from both Western and Eastern bloc countries, but it was often conditioned on political alignment or other considerations. Nehru wanted India to be self-sufficient.Geoffrey Tyson, "Foreign Investment in India." International Affairs 31.2 (1955): 174-181 online.
Nehru kept India's membership in the British Commonwealth, despite the widespread distrust of Britain across his Congress party. Popular grievances included the British UN delegation openly supported Pakistan on the Kashmir issue, Britain providing military advice to Pakistan, and London supporting the Dutch efforts to crush Indonesian nationalism. At that time the Commonwealth was little more than a debating society, but one objective was to use it as a sounding board for Third World interests. Non-membership would leave Pakistan in a stronger position. Another factor was the clear need for American help in terms of aid, loans, and trade. Nehru did not want to be too indebted to the Americans, and in that sense, the British and Commonwealth connection would be something of a counterweight. He did insist that the symbolic importance of the King be strictly limited, so there was no sense whatever of royal sovereignty in India.Gopal, Nehru 2:55–58.Bimal Prasad, "Nehru and the New Commonwealth." India Quarterly 39.4 (1983): 432-446.
Nehru set out to establish a conference of the states bordering the Indian Ocean, from Egypt and Ethiopia to the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand. It was an ambitious plan and gave Nehru the opportunity to give advice to the recently decolonized governments in the region, especially Burma and Ceylon. It led nowhere.David Scott, "The Indian Ocean as India's Ocean." in The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015): 466–478.
With favorable publicity in America, Nehru and Menon discussed whether India should "align with the United States 'somewhat' and build up our economic and military strength."Gopal, Nehru 2: 59. He made a major visit to the United States and Canada in October 1949. The Truman administration was quite favorable and indicated it would give Nehru anything he asked for. He proudly refused to beg and thereby forfeited the chance for a gift of a million tons of wheat. The American Secretary of State Dean Acheson recognized Nehru's potential world role but added that he was "one of the most difficult men with whom I have ever had to deal."Gopal, Nehru 2:60. The American visit was a partial success, in that Nehru gained widespread support for his nation, and he himself gained a much deeper understanding of the American outlook.Rudra Chaudhuri, Forged in crisis: India and the United States since 1947 (2014) pp 25–47. He also stiffened his negative attitude toward the Soviet Union, and also towards the new communist state of China. Nehru was especially annoyed that Moscow had adopted a negative and destructive approach to South East Asia, apparently trying to destabilize the region. Informally, Nehru made it clear that it would help defend Nepal and South East Asia against any communist aggression.Gopal, Nehru 2: 64–65.
Nehru dramatically changed course in 1950 because of the Korean War. After first voting in the United States nations against the North Korean invasion of South Korea, India announced the only real solution was to admit Communist China to the United Nations. This position greatly pleased Moscow and Beijing but distressed Washington. In 1951 he refused to participate in the Japanese peace treaty, considering it an American imperialistic venturer to seize control of Japanese policies. The net result was that India gained prestige in the Third World, and set the stage for a close relationship with the Soviet Union.Robert Barnes, "Between the blocs: India, the United Nations, and ending the Korean war." Journal of Korean Studies 18.2 (2013): 263–286. Online Pakistan, meanwhile, grew much closer to the United States and even seriously considered sending troops to fight alongside the Americans in Korea. This set the stage for an American transition to favor Pakistan strongly over India.G.W. Choudhury, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the major powers: politics of a divided subcontinent (1975) pp 15–16.
Nehru developed from Buddhist thought the Panchsheel (also known as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence), which would be included in future agreements. Nehru based India's foreign policy on these five principles, as articulated in 1954: coexistence respect for the territorial and integral sovereignty of others nonaggression non-interference with the internal affairs of others recognition of the equality of others. He did not mention a fierce determination to retain control of the Kashmir, a goal that would soon emerge.
Indira Gandhi foreign-policy: 1966–1984
The stated aims of the foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi premiership between 1967 and 1977 include a focus on security, by fighting militants abroad and strengthening border defenses.Surjit Mansingh, "Indira Gandhi's Foreign Policy: Hard Realism?" in The Oxford handbook of Indian Foreign Policy (2015) pp.104–116. On 30 October 1981, Gandhi said, "A country's policy is shaped by many forces- its position on the map, and the countries which are its neighbours, the policies they adopt, and the actions they take, as well as its historical experiences in the aggregate and in terms of its particular success or traumas."
In early 1971, disputed elections in Pakistan led East Pakistan to declare independence as Bangladesh. Repression and violence by the Pakistani army led 10 million refugees to cross border in to India over the coming months. Finally in December 1971, Gandhi directly intervened in the conflict to defeat Pakistan's army in Bangladesh. India emerged victorious in the resulting conflict to become the dominant power of South Asia. India had signed a treaty with the Soviet Union promising mutual assistance in the case of war, while Pakistan received active support from the United States during the conflict.Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira, BBC News, 29 June 2005 . BBC News (29 June 2005). Retrieved on 18 June 2011. U.S. President Richard Nixon disliked Gandhi personally. Relations with the U.S. became distant as Gandhi developed closer ties with the Soviet Union after the war. The latter grew to become India's largest trading partner and its biggest arms supplier.
Foreign policy since 1989 After collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in 1989, India no longer had to deal with its nonaligned position in the Cold War. Diplomat Shivshankar Menon identified five major policy decisions. They were: the 1993 Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement with China;Menon, pp 7–33.C. Raja Mohan, "Soft borders and cooperative frontiers: India's changing territorial diplomacy towards Pakistan and China." Strategic Analysis 31.1 (2007): 1–23. the Civil Nuclear Agreement with the United States in 2005;Menon, 34–59. the rejection of force against Pakistan after the 2008 Mumbai attacks;Menon, pp 60–81. dealing with Sri Lanka's civil war;Menon, pp 82–104. and announcing a policy of No first use of nuclear weapons.Menon, pp 105–23.
Pakistan
Relations between India and Pakistan have been complex and largely hostile due to a number of historical and political events. Relations between the two states have been defined by the violent partition of British India in 1947 which started the Kashmir conflict, and the numerous military conflicts fought between the two nations. Consequently, their relationship has been plagued by hostility and suspicion. Northern India and Pakistan somewhat overlap in areas of certain demographics and shared lingua francas (mainly Punjabi, Sindhi and Hindustani).