Scholars have given various interpretations of the elements of the Gospel stories.
Chronology
The approximate chronology of Jesus can be estimated from non-Christian sources, and confirmed by correlating them with New Testament accounts.Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 pages 113-129The Lion and the Lamb by Andreas J. Kostenberger, L. Scott Kellum and Charles L Quarles (Jul 15, 2012) page 40
The baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist places him in the Baptist's era, whose chronology can be determined from Josephus' reference (Antiquities 18.5.2) to the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias and the subsequent defeat of Herod by Aretas IV of Nabatea in AD 36.Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press pages 55-58Herodias: at home in that fox's den by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 pages 25-30The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier pages 662-663Herod Antipas by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 pages 125-127 Most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias, which Josephus relates to the execution of the Baptist by Herod, as AD 28–35, indicating a date somewhat earlier than that for the baptism of Jesus by John.Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 pages 302-303
A number of approaches have been used to estimate the date of the crucifixion of Jesus. One approach relies on the dates of the prefecture of Pontius Pilate who was governor of Roman Judea from 26 AD until 36 AD, after which he was replaced by Marcellus, 36-37 AD.Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 pages 44-45The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world by Peter Schäfer 2003 page 108Backgrounds of early Christianity by Everett Ferguson 2003 page 416 Another approach which provides an upper bound for the year of death of Jesus is working backwards from the chronology of Apostle Paul, which can be historically pegged to his trial in Corinth by Roman proconsul Gallio, the date of whose reign is confirmed in the Delphi Inscription discovered in the 20th century at the Temple of Apollo.Craig S. Keener in The Blackwell Companion to Paul edited by Stephen Westerholm 2011 page 51Paul and His Letters by John B. Polhill 1999 pages 49-50 The Cambridge Companion to St Paul by James D. G. Dunn (Nov 10, 2003) Cambridge Univ Press page 20Paul: his letters and his theology by Stanley B. Marrow 1986 pages 45-49Chronos, Kairos, Christos by Jerry Vardaman and Edwin M. Yamauchi (Aug 1989) page 211 Two independent astronomical methods (one going back to Isaac Newton) have also been used, suggesting the same year, i.e. 33 AD.Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 , page 13 Scholars generally agree that Jesus died between 30 and 36 AD.The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 page 114Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 pages 19-21Sanders (1993). pp. 11, 249.
Judean background
The historical and cultural context of Roman Judea and the tensions in the region at that time, provide a historical context to descriptions of the life of Jesus.Fredriksen, Paula (1988). From Jesus to Christ pp. ix-xiiSanders, E.P. (1987). Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press pp. 1-9
Following the successful Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucids, there was a growth of an apocalyptic view that the world was either in or approaching the End Times, when a messiah would restore the Kingdom of David.
In the time of Jesus' adulthood Judea was under Roman imperial rule. Roman prefects were appointed to the territory to maintain order and collect taxes, and to control Jerusalem through a political appointee, the High Priest. The imposition of a Roman system of taxation, and conflict between the Jews' demand for religious independence and Rome's efforts to impose a common system of governance meant there was continuous underlying tension in the area.John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, ch. 11; also H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, , page 251
In the Judaic religion of Jesus' day (Second Temple Judaism), the Pharisees and the Sadducees were the two significant and opposing power groups."Pharisees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 The Sadducees were generally high ranking priests with wealth and nobility who often favored the upper classes and had a strict interpretation of the Torah. The Pharisees (who used a more flexible interpretation of the Torah) were formed as a "separatist" movement and had a somewhat more democratic approach which favored the common people.Chronicle of Jewish History from the Patriarchs to the 21st Century by Sol Scharfstein and Dorcas Gelabert (Oct 1997) page 85 The Sadducees had significant power based on their close association with the Jerusalem Temple and by virtue of the seats they held in the Sanhedrin, which was the governing council for the Jews.A Guide Through the New Testament by Celia B. Sinclair (May 1, 1994) page 21
Language, race and appearance
Per the Bible, Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, I. Howard Marshall, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (InterVarsity Press, 1992), page 442 The language spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century amongst the common people was most frequently the Semitic Aramaic tongue,James Barr, Which language did Jesus speak, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 1970; 53(1) pages 9–29 Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament by Stanley E. Porter 1997 pages 110–112Discovering the language of Jesus by Douglas Hamp 2005 page 3-4 and most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic, although he may have also spoken Hebrew and perhaps had some fluency in Greek.Jesus in history and myth by R. Joseph Hoffmann 1986 page 98 James D. G. Dunn states that there is "substantial consensus" that Jesus gave his teachings in Aramaic.Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 pages 313-315 The Galilean dialect of Aramaic was clearly distinguishable from the Judean dialect.Jewish Encyclopedia: Galilee: Characteristics of Galileans: "
Despite the lack of direct biblical or historical references, various theories about the race of Jesus have been advanced and debated.Racializing Jesus: Race, Ideology and the Formation of Modern Biblical Scholarship by Shawn Kelley 2002 pages 70-73The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world by Colin Kidd 2006 pages 44-45 These claims have been mostly subjective, based on cultural stereotypes and societal trends rather than on scientific analysis.Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 082648011X pages 63-100The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world by Colin Kidd 2006 page 18The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France by Stephen Perkinson 2009 page 30 In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine stated: "Beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish' rarely does scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means."Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press 2006 page 10
Profession
Jesus is identified as the son of a τέκτων (tekton) and in a crowd surmises that Jesus was a tekton himself. Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but is a rather general word (from the same root that gives us "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, including builders.Dickson, John. Jesus: A Short Life, Lion Hudson, 2008, , page 47 But the specific association with woodworking was a constant in Early Christian writings; Justin Martyr (died c. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs, and there are similar early references.Fiensy, David A.; Jesus the Galilean: soundings in a first century life, Gorgias Press LLC, 2007, page 68
Other scholars have argued that tekton could equally mean a highly skilled craftsman in wood or the more prestigious metal, perhaps running a workshop with several employees, and noted sources recording the shortage of skilled artisans at the time.Fiensy, David A.; Jesus the Galilean: soundings in a first century life, Gorgias Press LLC, 2007, pages 74-77 Geza Vermes has stated that the terms 'carpenter' and 'son of a carpenter' are used in the Jewish Talmud to signify a very learned man, and he suggests that a description of Joseph as 'naggar' (a carpenter) could indicate that he was considered wise and highly literate in the Torah.Jesus the Jew: a historian's reading of the Gospels by Jeza Vermes 1983 ISBN SBN: 0961614846 page 21
Debate exists about the existence of Nazareth at the time of Joseph and Jesus, as it was not mentioned in any contemporary source. At best it was an obscure village in Galilee, about 65 km from the Holy City of Jerusalem, which is only later mentioned in surviving non-Christian texts and documents.Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998. “Contexts,” p 1-24.Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)Sanders terms it a "minor village." Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. p. 104 Archaeology over most of the site is made very difficult by subsequent building, but from what has been excavated and tombs in the area around the village, it is estimated that the population was at most about 400.Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence by Jonathan L. Reed (May 1, 2002) pages 131-134 It was, however, only about six kilometres from the city of Sepphoris, which was destroyed by the Romans in 4 BCE, and thereafter was expensively rebuilt. Jonathan L. Reed states that the analysis of the landscape and other evidence suggest that in Jesus' and Joseph's lifetime Nazareth was "oriented towards" the nearby city.Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence by Jonathan L. Reed (May 1, 2002) pages 114-117
Literacy
There are strong indications of a high illiteracy rate among the lower socio-economic classes in the Roman Empire at large, with various scholars estimating 3% to 10% literacy rates.The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Q-Z) by Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Jan 31, 1995) page 50 However, the Babylonian Talmud (which dates from the 3rd to 5th centuries) states that the Jews had schools in nearly every one of their towns.