One of the major early human migrations was the maritime Austronesian expansion into the islands of the Indo-Pacific, believed to have begun between at least 5500 and 4000 BP (3500 to 2000 BCE). These migrations were accompanied by a set of domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal plants and animals transported via outrigger ships and catamarans that enabled the early Austronesian peoples to thrive in the islands of Maritime Southeast Asia, Near Oceania and Remote Oceania, Madagascar, and the Comoro Islands.
They include crops and animals believed to have originated from the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures in the theorized pre-Austronesian homelands in China, as well as other plants and animals believed to have been first domesticated from within Taiwan, maritime Southeast Asia, and New Guinea. These plants are often referred to as "canoe plants", especially in the context of the migrations of the Polynesians.W. Arthur Whistler (1991). "Islands, Plants, and Polynesians—An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany." National Tropical Botanical Garden c/o Botany Department University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. Retrieved March 2022. Domesticated animals and plants introduced during historic times are not included.
Plants Domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal plants carried by Austronesian voyagers include the following:
Aleurites moluccanus (candlenut)
The candlenut (Aleurites moluccanus) was first domesticated in Maritime Southeast Asia. Remains of harvested candlenuts have been recovered from archaeological sites in Timor and Morotai in eastern Indonesia, dated to around 13,000 BP and 11,000 BP respectively. Archaeological evidence of candlenut cultivation is also found in Neolithic sites of the Toalean culture in southern Sulawesi dated to around 3,700 to 2,300 BP. Candlenut were widely introduced into the Pacific Islands by early Austronesian voyagers and became naturalized to high volcanic islands.
Candlenut has a very wide range of uses, and every part of the tree can be harvested. They were primarily cultivated for the high oil content in their nut kernels. They were widely used for illumination before the introduction of other light sources, hence the name "candlenut". The kernels were skewered onto coconut midribs that were then set alight. Each kernel takes about 3 minutes to burn, so the series could act as a torch. This tradition of making candlenut torches exists in both Southeast Asia and Oceania. Candlenut oil extracted from the nuts can also be used directly in lamps. They can also be used in the production of soaps and ointments, and as preservatives for fishing gear. Other traditional uses include using the timber for making small canoes and carvings; the sap for varnish and resins; the nut shells for ornamentation (most notably as leis), fish-hooks, toys, and the production of black dyes; the bark for medicine and fiber; and so on. Some non-toxic varieties are also used as condiments or ingredients in the cuisines of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ("PMP") word for candlenut is reconstructed as *kamiri, with modern cognates including Hanunó'o, Iban, and Sundanese kamiri; Javanese and Malay kemiri; and Tetun kamii.
However, Oceanic words for candlenut are derived instead from Proto-Austronesian *CuSuR, which became PMP *tuhuR, originally meaning "string together, as beads", referring to the construction of the candlenut torches. It became Proto-Eastern-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Oceanic *tuRi which is then reduplicated. Modern cognates including Fijian, Tongan, Cook Islands Māori, and Niue tui-tui; and Hawaiian kui-kui or kukui.
Alocasia macrorrhizos (giant taro)
The giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos) was originally domesticated in the Philippines, but early Austronesians in Taiwan obtained it. From the Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders. Giant taro is one of the four main species of aroids (Araceae, taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being the 'elephant foot yam' Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, the common 'taro' Colocasia esculenta, and the 'giant swamp taro' Cyrtosperma merkusii, each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this is rarely done with giant taro, as it contains higher levels of raphides, which can cause itching.
The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is *biRaq, which became Proto-Oceanic *piRaq. Modern cognates for it in languages of Maritime Southeast Asia and Micronesia include the first-order language Rukai vi'a or bi'a in Taiwan; the Philippine forms Ifugao bila; Ilocano, Cebuano, Bikol, and Mongondow biga; Teduray bira; the Greater Barito forms Ngaju biha and Malagasy via; Malayic Malay and Chamic Acehnese birah; Palauan bísə; Chamorro piga; Bima wia; Timoric Rote–Meto and Tetun fia; and the CEMP Central Maluku languages Asilulu hila and Kowiai fira. In Oceania, cognates for it include Malayo-Polynesian Wuvulu-Aua pia; Oceanic Southeast Solomonic ꞋAreꞌare and Western Oceanic Papuan Tip Motu hira; Papuan Tip Kilivila and Central Oceanic Fijian via; and Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Hawaiian pia. Note that in some cases, cognates have shifted to refer to other types of taro or, in the case of many Polynesian languages, to "pia" as arrowroot. In Polynesia, the most common word for Alocasia macrorrhiza is "kape" or "'ape."
Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant foot yam)
The elephant foot yam Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is used as food in Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Its origin and center of domestication were formerly considered to be India, where it is most widely utilized as a food resource in recent times. A genetic study in 2017 demonstrated that Indian populations of elephant foot yams have lower genetic diversity than those in Maritime Southeast Asia and elephant foot yams originated from Maritime Southeast Asia and spread westwards into Thailand and India, resulting in three independent domestication events. From Maritime Southeast Asia, Austronesians also spread even further west into Madagascar and eastwards to coastal New Guinea and Oceania, although they may have spread south into Australia without human intervention.
The elephant foot yam is one of the four main species of Arecae cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch, the others being Alocasia macrorrhizos, common taro, and Cyrtosperma merkusii, each with multiple cultivated varieties. Elephant foot yam, however, is the least important among the four and was likely only eaten as a famine food, since it contains more raphides, which cause irritation if not cooked thoroughly.
Areca catechu (areca palm)
The practice of chewing areca nuts originated in Maritime Southeast Asia, where the areca palm is native. The oldest known evidence of areca nut chewing was found in a burial pit in the Duyong Cave site in the Philippines (to which areca palms are native), which dates to around 4,630±250 BP. Its diffusion is closely tied to the Neolithic expansion of the Austronesian peoples. It was spread to the Indo-Pacific during prehistoric times, reaching Micronesia at 3,500 to 3,000 BP, Near Oceania at 3,400 to 3,000 BP; South India and Sri Lanka by 3,500 BP; Mainland Southeast Asia by 3,000 to 2,500 BP; Northern India by 1500 BP; and Madagascar by 600 BP. From India, it was also spread westwards to Persia and the Mediterranean. It was also previously present in the Lapita culture, based on archaeological remains dated from 3,600 to 2,500 BP, but it was not carried into Polynesia.
Artocarpus Numerous species of Artocarpus are traditionally cultivated or harvested from semi-domesticated or wild populations in Maritime Southeast Asia and Micronesia for food, timber, traditional medicine, and other uses. They include Artocarpus anisophyllus (entawak), Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit or nangka), Artocarpus integer (cempedak), Artocarpus lacucha (lakuch), Artocarpus mariannensis (Marianas breadfruit), Artocarpus odoratissimus (tarap or marang), and Artocarpus treculianus (tipuho), among many others. The most important species pertaining to the Austronesian expansion however, are Artocarpus camansi (breadnut or seeded breadfruit) and Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit).
Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit)
According to DNA fingerprinting studies, the wild seeded ancestor of Artocarpus altilis is the Artocarpus camansi, which is native to New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Philippines. A. camansi was domesticated and selectively bred in Polynesia, giving rise to the mostly seedless Artocarpus altilis. Micronesian breadfruit also show evidence of hybridization with the native Artocarpus mariannensis, while most Polynesian and Melanesian cultivars do not. This indicates that Micronesia was initially colonized separately from Polynesia and Melanesia through two different migration events which later came into contact with each other in eastern Micronesia.
The reconstructed Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word for breadfruit is *kuluʀ, which became Proto-Oceanic *kulur and Proto-Polynesian *kulu. Modern cognates include Sundanese and Malay kulur or kelur; Acehnese kulu; Iban kurur; Cebuano kulo or kolo; Muna kula; Mussau ulu; Kapingamarangi gulu; Wayan Fijian kulu; Emae kuro; Tuamotuan, Takuu, and Rarotongan kuru; Tahitian uru; Samoan and Hawaiian ulu; and Māori kuru. Note that in Māori, kuru is only mentioned in tradition, but does not refer to the plant because breadfruit did not survive into New Zealand. Also note that it is believed that breadfruit only reached western Maritime Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula) during the recent centuries, as a result of trade with the Maluku Islands.
Another notable reconstructed word for breadfruit is Proto-Oceanic *maRi or *mai. It is a common root for words for breadfruit in Micronesia, northern and western New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Admiralty Islands, St Matthias Islands, New Caledonia, and parts of the Central Pacific. The term itself may have originally been for Artocarpus mariannensis instead of Artocarpus altilis. Cognates include Pohnpeian, Mokil, and Ngatik māi; Palauan, Satawal, and Tuvaluan mai; Puluwat mais; Yapese maiyah; and Tongan, Niuean, and Marquesan mei.
Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit)
The jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) was domesticated independently in South Asia and Southeast Asia, as evidenced by the fact that the Southeast Asian names for the fruit are not derived from the Sanskrit roots. It was probably first domesticated by Austronesians in Java or the Malay Peninsula. The word for jackfruit in Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian is reconstructed as *laŋkaq. Modern cognates include Sundanese, Javanese, Malay, Balinese, and Cebuano nangka; Tagalog, Pangasinan, Bikol and Ilocano langka; Chamorro lanka or nanka; Kelabit nakan; Wolio nangke; Ibaloi dangka; and Lun Dayeh laka. Note, however, that the fruit was only recently introduced to Guam via Filipino settlers when both were part of the Spanish Empire.
Bambusoideae (bamboos)
Various species of bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae) are found throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, East Asia, and South Asia. In Austronesian regions, different types of bamboos have different names, as well as the products made from them. They are used variously as building materials, fishing gear, musical instruments, knives, water and food vessels, and so on. Bamboo shoots are also a food source in Southeast Asia. A few species of bamboo were carried by Austronesian settlers as they colonized the Pacific islands. They include the ohe (Schizostachyum glaucifolium), the common bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), and the thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos).