Khazal bin Jabir bin Merdaw al-Kabi (، ; 1861 – 27 May 1936), was the Ruler of Arabistan, the Sheikh of Mohammerah, known as Sultan Khaz'al and Sultan of Mohammerah, from the Kasebite clan of the Banu Ka'b, of which he was the Sheikh of Sheikhs, the Overlord of the Mehaisan tribal confederation and the Ruler of the Shatt al-Arab. He was described as the most powerful Arabian ruler and maintained close relations with both Arab and European rulers. Foreign ships would fire salutes in his honor whenever they passed along the Shatt al-Arab near his palace and Pope Benedict XV honored him with the Order of St. Gregory the Great for his assistance in building a church and safe haven in Mohammerah for Christian refugees.
Historical background
Khaz'al was born in 1861 in the village of Kut al-Zayn, in the Abu al-Khasib district of Basra, then under Ottoman rule. He was the fifth of his siblings. From an early age, his father devoted special attention to his upbringing, ensuring he received a well-rounded education, with particular emphasis on religion, languages, and horsemanship.
He was known for his sharp intellect, noble character, and generosity, and distinguished himself as a scholar and a revolutionary poet. Khaz'al married several women from noble families, including the daughters of princes and tribal leaders. In total, he had twenty wives and twenty-seven children, both sons and daughters. On 2 June 1897, Khaz'al inherited the Emirate of Mohammerah. Although never a part of the British Empire, the Persian Gulf had been effectively incorporated into the British imperial system since the early 19th century. The conclusion of treaties and agreements with the region's various tribal rulers was one of the central means by which Britain enforced its hegemonic presence, and Khaz’al was no exception to this trend.
Khaz'al’s role in political life became prominent during the final years of his father’s rule, when he was entrusted with certain responsibilities and appointed commander of the army. When his older brother Sheikh Miz'al ibn Jabir assumed the emirate after their father’s death, Khaz'al continued to wield significant influence, and his brother relied heavily on him to suppress rebels among the sheikhs who refused to pledge allegiance to the new ruler.
However, subsequent political developments in Ahwaz — including the growing influence of the British on one side and Persia's occupation of the cities of Tustar and Dezful on the other — prompted Khaz'al to take action to assume authority and resist foreign encroachment. His efforts were praised by the British, as they prevented Persia from occupying those two cities. Eventually, Miz'al was assassinated after ruling for sixteen years, and Khaz'al succeeded him as ruler.
Rise to power
Upon Khaz'al's accession as the new emir, the capital saw extensive celebrations, with tribal leaders arriving to pledge allegiance, and delegations from Iraq also coming to offer their congratulations.
Upon assuming power, Khaz'al ushered in a new era for the emirate. He focused on strengthening internal governance, and his determination, strong personality, and firm control over state affairs had a profound impact on improving the emirate’s condition. After expelling Persian forces from the cities of Tustar and Dezful following intense battles, he appointed Arab governors over the two cities.
To consolidate his authority, Khaz'al unified all local sheikhs under his leadership, extending his influence from the Shatt al-Arab to Dezful, and even into surrounding Persian territories. Once his borders were secured and his authority established, he turned his attention toward further strengthening and developing the emirate.
The Anglo-Persian Oil Company The oil industry owed its early success to Sheikh Khaz'al. Once oil was discovered in Masjed Soleyman in 1908, by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), later BP, Khaz'al's ties to Britain strengthened. In 1909, the British government asked Percy Cox, British resident to Bushehr, to negotiate an agreement with Khaz'al for APOC to obtain a site on Abadan Island for a refinery, depot, storage tanks, and other operations. The refinery was built and began operating in 1912. Khaz'al was knighted in 1910 and supported Britain in World War I.
Following the discovery of oil in Arabistan-controlled territory, the British moved quickly to establish control over the vast oil resources in the province, which culminated in the foundation of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in 1909. The British established a treaty with Khaz'al, whereby in exchange for their guaranteed support and protection against any external attack, he would also guarantee to maintain internal security and not interfere with the process of oil extraction. As part of the treaty they were given a monopoly of drilling in the province in return for an annual payment to Khaz'al, though the profits of the company vastly exceeded the annual payments.
Sheikh Khaz'al's Relations with the Ottoman Empire The Emirate of Mohammerah, under the leadership of the Banu Ka'b tribe, had a long-standing history of autonomy and shifting allegiances between the Ottoman and Persian empires. Sheikh Khazʽal’s predecessors, including his father, Shaikh Jabir Ibn Merdaw, skillfully navigated these complex relationships to preserve the emirate’s autonomy.Arabistān khilāl ḥukm al-Shaykh Khaz‘al al-Ka‘bī, 1897-1925, ma‘a ahamm al-wathā’iq allatī lam yasbuq nashrahā by Najjār, Muṣṭafá ‘Abd al-Qādir (2009), p.59
Relations with the Ottoman Empire During Sheikh Khazʽal’s rule
the Ottoman Empire was in a period of decline, facing internal challenges and external pressures. The waning influence of the Ottomans in the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf provided Sheikh Khazʽal with opportunities to assert greater autonomy. While he maintained formal recognition of Ottoman suzerainty, Sheikh Khazʽal exercised considerable independence in the governance of the Emirate.
However, Sheikh Khazʽal's relationship with the Ottoman Empire was not purely oppositional. He also played a significant role in assisting the Ottomans when it aligned with his interests. One of the most notable instances of his support was during the Battle of Tripoli, Sheikh Khazʽal extended his support to ottomans. Furthermore, he contributed financially to the Ottoman navy through donations to the Donanma Cemiyeti (Ottoman Navy Society) demonstrating his loyalty to the empire at a critical moment. This assistance earned him the recognition of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in appreciation of his contributions, awarded him the 1st Class Majidi Order, one of the highest honors of the Ottoman Empire.İslam mecmuası. Issues 1-18 (1914), p. 350
Arab Solidarity Against Ottoman Influence
Beyond his local affairs, Sheikh Khazʽal also played a significant role in fostering Arab unity against Ottoman dominance. He formed alliances with key Arab leaders in Arabia, Kuwait, and Iraq to resist Ottoman control over the Arab world. Understanding the growing nationalist sentiment among Arabs, Sheikh Khazʽal supported initiatives to strengthen Arab identity and autonomy.
In 1909, Sheikh Khazʽal convened a conference at his residence in Al-Fayliah Palace in Mohammerah, to advocate for the rights of Arabs under the Ottoman Empire. This notable assembly was attended by prominent figures such as Shaikh Mubarak Al-Sabah, the Emir of Kuwait; Saadoun Pasha; Youssef Al-Naqeeb; and Abdul Wahhab Pasha Al-Qurtas, the Ottoman Governor of Basra. The Ottoman Empire expressed considerable interest in the proceedings, which ultimately led to the appointment of Suleiman Pasha Al-Nazif as Governor of Basra in November 1909.Arabistān khilāl ḥukm al-Shaykh Khaz‘al al-Ka‘bī, 1897-1925, ma‘a ahamm al-wathā’iq allatī lam yasbuq nashrahā by Najjār, Muṣṭafá ‘Abd al-Qādir, p.173
British Influence
The British Empire had substantial interests in the Persian Gulf, particularly regarding oil exploration and trade routes. Sheikh Khazʽal's strategic position made him a valuable ally for the British. He engaged in negotiations with British officials, seeking their support for his autonomy while leveraging British interests to strengthen his position against both Ottoman and Persian pressures.
Decline of Ottoman Influence
By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire’s control over its Arabian territories had significantly weakened. Sheikh Khazʽal capitalized on this decline by distancing his emirate from Ottoman influence and aligning more closely with British and Arab nationalist movements. This shift contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Emirate of Mohammerah following Sheikh Khazʽal’s arrest and exile by the Persian government in 1925.
Sheikh Khaz'al turns down the throne of Kuwait When Percy Cox was informed of this event, he sent a letter to Khaz'al offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs, knowing that Khaz'al would be a wiser ruler. Khaz'al, who considered the Al Sabah as his own family, replied "Do you expect me to allow the stepping down of Al Mubarak from the throne of Kuwait? Do you think I can accept this?" He then asked:
Conflict with Reza Khan and downfall
In November 1923, when Khaz’al Khan had seen Ahmad Shah Qajar off, as he was crossing the border for Europe, the Emperor had told him about his fears of Reza Khan's ambitions in the same way as he had spoken openly to Percy Loraine. Then came the Shah's telegram of April 1924 about his loss of confidence in Reza Khan. In the following summer, Khaz’al brought together some regional magnates and tribal heads – the Vali of Poshtkuh, heads of the Khamseh federation of tribes, and many of the local Arab tribal leaders – in a coalition to resist Reza. They described themselves as the Committee of the Rising for Happiness, and sent telegrams and statements to Tehran. Their statements demanded constitutional government and the return of the Shah, who they said had been forced to remain in Europe. They also attacked military violations of the people's rights in the provinces, and ‘the massacres of Loristan’; demanded Reza Khan's dismissal; and described the Prince Regent, Ali Reza Khan Azod al-Molk, as the legitimate fount of authority. It was all in the name of the law, justice and the constitution, and ‘in the illustrious name of His Imperial Majesty Soltan Ahmad Shah, the constitutional monarch’. The committee sought to defend and protect constitutionalism, and stop the traitors and criminals freely dispensing with it and re-establishing the apparatus of arbitrary rule and injustice once again ... and stop Reza Khan from trampling the principles of democratic government under foot by arbitrary government."