The Nyāya Sūtras (Sanskrit: न्यायसूत्र) is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text composed by and the foundational text of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy.Klaus K Klostermaier (1998), A concise encyclopedia of Hinduism, Oneworld, , page 129Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages vii, 33, 129 The date when the text was composed is unknown, but variously estimated between 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 129B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv. The biography of its author is unknown, and the text may have been composed by more than one author over a period of time. The text consists of five books, with two chapters in each book, with a cumulative total of 528 aphoristic sutras about rules of reason, logic, epistemology and metaphysics.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 127–136Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), Nyaya-Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass,
The Nyāya Sūtras is a Hindu text, notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 129; Quote: "In focusing on knowledge and logic, Gautama's Sutras made no mention of Vedic ritual". The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge. Book two is about pramana (epistemology), book three is about prameya (the objects of knowledge), and the remaining books discuss the nature of knowledge. It set the foundation for the Nyaya tradition of the empirical theory of validity and truth, opposing uncritical appeals to intuition or scriptural authority.Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 3, 1–12
The Nyāya Sūtras cover a wide range of topics, including Tarka-Vidyā, the science of debate, or Vāda-Vidyā, the science of discussion.Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 191–199, 207–208 The Nyāya Sutras are related to but extend the epistemological and metaphysical system.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 98, 103–104, 128 Later commentaries expanded, expounded, and discussed the Nyaya sutras. The earliest surviving commentaries are the Nyāyabhāṣya of Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana (5th–6th century CE), the Nyāyavārttika of Uddyotakāra (6th–7th century CE), Vācaspati Miśra's Tātparyatīkā (9th century CE), Udayana's Tātparyapariśuddhi (10th century CE), and Jayanta's Nyāyamañjarī (10th century CE).Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 239
Author and chronology
The Nyaya-sutras is attributed to Gautama, who was at least the principal author. According to Karl Potter, this name has been a very common Indian name, and the author is also reverentially referred to as Gotama, Dirghatapas and Aksapada Gautama. Little is known about Gautama, or which century he lived in. Scholarly estimates, based on textual analysis, vary from the 6th century BCE, making him a contemporary of Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) and Mahavira, to as late as the 2nd century CE. Some scholars favor the theory that the cryptic text Nyaya-sutras was expanded over time by multiple authors, with the earliest layer from about mid-first millennium BCE that was composed by Gautama. The earliest layer is likely to be Books 1 and 5 of the text, while Books 3 and 4 may have been added last, but this is not certain.
It is likely, states Jeaneane Fowler, that Nyaya and the science of reason stretch back into the Vedic era; they developed in the ancient Indian tradition that involved "dialectical tournaments, in the halls of kings and schools of Vedic philosophers", and Gautama was the one who distilled and systematized this pre-existing knowledge into sutras, or aphoristic compilations called nyayasutras.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 128–129
The Nyaya school of Hinduism influenced all other schools of Hindu philosophy, as well as Buddhism. Despite their differences, these scholars studied with each other and debated ideas, with Tibetan records suggesting that Buddhist scholars spent years residing with Hindu Nyaya scholars to master the art of reasoning and logic. This cooperation has enabled scholars to place the currently surviving version of the Nyayasutras, to a terminus ante quem (completed before) date of about the 2nd century CE, because one of the most famous and established Buddhist scholars of that era, Nagarjuna, explicitly states, "sutra 4.2.25 is addressed against the Madhyamika system" of Buddhism. Other ancient Buddhist texts confirm that the Nyayasutras existed before them, and the text is considered the primary text of the old Nyaya school of Hinduism.Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 221–223
Structure
The text is written in sutra genre. A sutra is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread", and represents a condensed manual of knowledge of a specific field or school.Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for Sutra, page 1241Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 54–55 Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 249 Sutras were compiled to be remembered, used as reference and to help teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.
The Nyayasutra is divided into five books, each book subdivided into two chapters each. The structure of the text is, states Potter, a layout of ahnikas or lessons served into daily portions, each portion consisting of a number of sutras or aphorisms. The architecture of the text is also split and collated into prakaranas or topics, which later commentators such as Vatsyayana and Vacaspati Misra used to compose their bhasya, ancient texts that have survived into the modern era. There are several surviving manuscripts of the Nyayasutras, with a slight difference in number of sutras, of which the Chowkhamba edition is often studied.
+ The structure of Nyayasutra Book Chapter Number of sutras TopicsKarl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 222–238SC Vidyabhushana (1913, Translator), The Nyâya Sutras, The Sacred Book of the Hindus, Volume VIII, Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press, pages i–v 1 1 41 Subject matter and statement of purpose of the text. Four reliable instruments of correct knowledge. Definitions. Nature of argument and nature of the process of valid proof. 2 20 How to analyze opposing views, presents its theory of five-membered arguments, correct conclusions are those where contradictions do not exist, theory of reasoning methods that are flawed, what is a quibble and how to avoid it. 2 1 69 Presents its theory of Doubt. Discusses epistemology, when perception, inference and comparison is unreliable and reliable. Theory that the reliability of testimony depends on the reliability of the source. Theory that the testimony in the Vedas are a source of knowledge and inconsistencies are either defects or choices in the text, the best way to understand the Vedas is to divide it into three: injunction, descriptions and reinculcations. 2 71 Instruments of knowledge are fourfold, Confusion caused by presumption and prejudice, Sound is noneternal theory, Theory of three meaning of words (vyakti, akrti and jati) 3 1 73 presents its theory of body, followed by theory of sensory organs and their role in correct and incorrect knowledge, states that the soul is not a sense organ nor an internal organ. 2 72 presents its theory of soul (self, atman), that the essence of a person and source of judgments is the soul, states its "judgment is non-eternal" theory, presents theory of Karma 4 1 68 Presents its theory of defects, then its theory that "everything has cause, and consequences", and its "some things are eternal, some non-eternal" theory. Defines and describes Fruits, Pain, Release. 2 50 Presents correct knowledge is necessary and sufficient to destroy defects. Both whole and part must be known. Establishes external world exists, and phenomenon are as real as objects. Refutes the "everything is false" theory. Presents ways to produce and maintain correct knowledge, Need to seek and converse with those with knowledge. 5 1 43 24 futile rejoinders, how to avoid errors and present relevant rejoinders 2 24 22 ways of losing an argument
Content
The first sutra 1.1.1 of the text asserts its scope and the following sixteen categories of knowledge as a means to gain competence in any field of interest:
These sixteen categories cover many sections of the text. The verse 1.1.2 of the Nyāya Sūtra declares the text's goal is to study and describe the attainment of liberation of soul from wrong knowledge, faults and sorrow, through the application of above sixteen categories of perfecting knowledge.Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986). Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction, New Delhi: People's Publishing House, , p.163SC Vidyabhushana (1913, Translator), The Nyâya Sutras, The Sacred Book of the Hindus, Volume VIII, Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press, page 2
Means of attaining valid knowledge The Nyaya-sutras assert the premise that "all knowledge is not intrinsically valid", that "most knowledge is not valid unless proven" and "truth exists whether we human beings know it or not".Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 134-138 However, states Fowler, the text accepts the foundation that "some knowledge is self evident" and axiomatic in every field of knowledge, which can neither be proven nor needs proof, such as "I am conscious", "I think" and "soul exists".S Dasgupta (1996), Yoga Philosophy: In Relation to Other Systems of Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 142–148 Furthermore, the text presents its thesis that knowledge is not self-revealing, one must make effort to gain knowledge and this is a systematic process that empowers one to learn correct knowledge, and abandon incorrect knowledge.Stephen Phillips (2014), Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School, Routledge, , Chapter 1
The Nyāya sutras asserts and then discusses four reliable means of obtaining knowledge (pramāṇa), viz., Perception, Inference, Comparison and Reliable Testimony.John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238
Pratyaksha: Perception