Stereopsis is the visual perception that seen objects have physical extent in three dimensions of space. It is caused by pictorial and nonpictorial depth cues. The largest component of stereopsis is stereopsis from binocular disparity, which is enabled through binocular vision. This sensation is much stronger than the suggestion of depth that is created by two-dimensional perspective. Stereopsis shares visual causes with depth perception.
In humans, at least two mechanisms produce the sensation of stereopsis: binocular depth vision and (monocular) motion vision. In binocular depth vision, the sensation arises from processing differences in retinal images resulting from the two eyes looking from different, but similar, directions (binocular disparity). In motion vision, the sensation arises from processing motion information when the observer moves (e.g. optical flow, parallax). The sensation of stereopsis is similar in both cases.
In research on depth vision, the term stereopsis is primarily used for binocular depth vision and not for the sensation of depth resulting from motion vision. Sometimes the term "relative depth" is used. This term emphasizes that it refers not to the distance to the observer, but to the mutual depth relationships of the perceived objects. If the meaning is clear from the context, the single word "depth" is also used instead of "relative depth." The word stereopsis comes . Together, these indicate seeing the outside of three-dimensional, "solid" objects.
Binocular depth vision comes in two qualities: coarse stereopsis and fine stereopsis. Fine stereopsis plays a role in the recognition of shapes and objects, and coarse stereopsis in spatial localization.
Summary of research A large component of stereopsis is stereopsis from binocular disparity. In the 1800s, Charles Wheatstone invented the stereoscope, which uses stereopsis from binocular disparity. He showed that horizontal disparity of vertical lines is sufficient to evoke a sensation of depth.Wheatstone C (1838), "On some remarkable and hitherto unobserved phenomena of binocular vision", Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Part 1,371 – 395.Hering E (1864),"Vom binocularen tiefensehen"),In: Beiträge zur Physiologie. Fünftes handle. Wilhelm Engelmann: Leipzig. Erster Band. Leipzig. Thieme, 1931. Panum PL (1858), "Physiological observations about the results with two hours" Kiel.Fröhlich (1895) "Unter welchem umstände erscheinen doppelbilder in ungleichen Abständen vom Beobachter?" Albrecht vom Graefes Arch. Klin. Exp. Ophthalm. 41, 134 157. Béla Julesz showed in the 20th century that the sensation of stereopsis from binocular disparity also occurs with dots (random dot stereogram) and that depth vision precedes the perception of forms. Jodi Krol showed around the same time that a light transition (edge) is necessary, but that two corresponding edges of opposite contrast do not give a depth sensation. Krol also found that the depth of the surfaces between these edges is an interpretation.Krol JD, van de Grind WA (1979), "On the sufficiency of disparate contours as a stimulus for stereopsis", Neurosc. Lett. Suppl. 3 S 304. Krol JD, van de Grind WA (1981),"Fixation disparities and depth vision due to a process of vergence fine-tuning", In: Proc. 22nd meeting of the Dutch Federation of Medical Scientific Societies, Utrecht, April 24, No. 248.Krol JD, van de Grind WA (1982) ,"Depth from dichoptic edges depends on vergence fine-tuning," The left and right visual directions should be stimulated at approximately the same time, but this does not have to happen at exactly the same time. This is illustrated by the Puflrich illusion.
Kenneth Ogle (1950) found that the quality of depth perception differs for small and large disparities and on this basis distinguishes different types of stereopsis.Ogle KN (1953),"Precision and validity of stereoscopic depth perception from double images", J. Opt. Soc. Am. 43, 906 – 513.Blakemore C (1970)"The range and scope of binocular depth discrimination in man", J. of Pfysiol. Lond. 211, 599-622. It is generally accepted that in the absence of a sensation of stereopsis the perceived image is usually seen in the plane of the horopter. John Foley (1972) describes that in exceptional cases the image can also appear slightly behind or in front of the horopter.Foley JM,, Richards W (1972), "Effects of voluntary eye movement and convergence on the binocular appreciation of depth", Perception and Psychophysics 11, 423 – 427. Jodi Krol (1982) shows that the latter happens when the eyes are unconsciously directed slightly in front of or behind the intended fixation point due to certain reflexes and the fixation point is therefore not on the horopter.
Finally, nerve cells have been found in the visual cortex that are tuned to a certain disparity.Bishop PO (1973), "Neurophysiology of binocular single vision and stereopsis", In: Handbook of sensory physiology, vol. VII/3A: Central processing of visual information. A: Integrative functions and comparative data. These cells form the basis for neural models for binocular depth vision Sperling G (1970), "Binocular vision: a physical and neural theory", Am. J. of Psychol. 83, 461 – 533.Krol JD, van de Grind WA (1989),"The double-nail illusion, experiments on binocular vision with nails needles and pins", Perception.1980;9(6):651-69, and for the solution of the correspondence problem to be discussed. These cells are part of two neurophysiological mechanisms that are specialized in shape and object recognition and in spatial localization, respectively.
Binocular disparity
Much of stereopsis is caused by binocular disparity, the difference in images seen by both eyes.
When attention is directed to a point F in space, automatic eye movements are performed, causing the eye to rotate and point F is mapped onto the point of the eye with which it can see most sharply, the fovea. The direction in which the eye then looks is called the principle ocular direction. Every other point in space is seen by the eye in a certain direction that can be expressed as the angle that this direction makes with the principle direction. This is called visual direction or simply direction. The directions in which each eye sees the same object are sometimes the same, but usually not. The difference in directions is called disparity. The separate article on directional vision explains how the brain combines the directions that each eye sees into a combined image with single images, double images and fused images that are apparently seen from a point in the middle between both eyes (cyclopean eye).
Horizontal disparity
The horizontal distance of approximately 6.5 cm between the two eyes ensures that points in space that are at different depths relative to the fixation point have a horizontal difference in direction. This difference is called horizontal disparity and is expressed as the difference between the angles α and β in the figure. In addition to horizontal disparity, there is also vertical disparity. This term indicates a vertical disalignment between the two eyes which can be caused by vertical eye movement or tilting the head. The latter is usually partially or completely corrected with automatically performed eye movements. Vertical disparities can also evoke a sense of depth in some cases.Matthews N;Meng X.; Xu P; Qian Q.(2003) "A physiological theory of depth perception from vertical disparity", Vision Research. Volume 43, Issue 1, January 2003, Pages 85-99.
The terms horizontal and vertical disparity only make sense when the observer is upright. Another term that is sometimes used and that better describes the load is binocular disparity. Binocular disparity has many similarities with motion parallax and is therefore sometimes also called binocular parallax. Motion parallax also evokes a depth sensation, but it requires the observer to move or the observed objects to move relative to each other. Under neurophysiological mechanisms it can be read that motion parallax is possibly processed in the same system as coarse stereopsis.
Horopter
Points at the same depth as the fixation point lie on a circle through both eyes and the fixation point. This circle is called the horopter. Points on this circle project onto corresponding points in both eyes, i.e. onto points that look in the same direction in the left and right eye. We perceive the horopter as a kind of screen on which we see the world.
Crossed disparity The directions in both eyes of a point C that is closer than the horopter are seen crossed on this screen: the direction in which the direction of the left eye is seen is to the right of the direction of the right eye. This is called crossed disparity or negative disparity.
Parallel disparity The directions in both eyes of a point P that is further away than the horopter are seen side by side on this screen: the right direction is seen on the right. This is called parallel disparity or positive disparity.
Wheatstone's proof
Charles Wheatstone showed in 1838 that two objects that differ only in horizontal disparity produce a sensation of relative depth.Contributions to the physiology of vision. – Part 1. On some remarkable and hitherto unnoticed phenomena of binocular vision. By CHARLES WHEATSTONE, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosophy at King's College, London. To ensure that this sensation could not be caused by two-dimensional perspective, he used a pair of flat plates with two vertical lines, a line stereogram, to represent the visual directions, and invented the stereoscope to view these plates.
Depth as a function of disparity
Kenneth Ogle investigated how the sensation of depth depends on the degree of disparity and published his findings in 1950.Ogle K. N. (1950), "Researches in binocular vision", Philadelphia: Saunders. Ogle asked an observer to fixate a point F and then moved a vertical rod Y in depth away from X. The magnitude of the perceived depth was found to increase linearly at small disparities, and to decrease again at larger disparities, and to be completely absent at even larger disparities. In the latter case, Y was seen at the distance of the horopter.
If Ogle asked the observer to look back and forth between X and Y (vergence), depth perception was found to be possible over a much larger range.
According to the research of Ogle and others, depth differences are perceived only in a narrow region of space, further away and closer than the horopter and this occurs with three qualities: fine stereopsis, coarse stereopsis and no stereopsis.Ogle K.N. (1952a) "On the limits of stereoscopic vision" K, J. Exp. Psychol. 44, 253 -259.Ogle K.N. (1952b) "Disparity limits of stereopsis", A.M.A. Ophtalm. 48, 50- 60.
Fine stereopsis With fine stereopsis, the observer can indicate the size of the depth: the greater the disparity, the greater the perceived depth. Ogle used the term patent stereopsis for this. Later researchers replaced this term with "fine stereopsis".
Coarse stereopsis With coarse stereopsis, the observer can indicate whether one object is further away than the other, but not how much. Ogle used the term qualitative stereopsis for this. Later researchers replaced this term with "coarse stereopsis".
No stereopsis In the remaining area, objects are seen without depth sensation, at or around the distance of the horopter, and usually as a double image.
Conditions for binocular depth vision Horizontal disparity is a condition for seeing relative depth, but not a sufficient condition. The visual directions in the left and right eyes must also have a certain similarity, such as equal light transitions (edges) or spots, and must be stimulated more or less simultaneously. Eye movements ensure that objects in space fall on corresponding points in both eyes as much as possible and the disparity remains as small as possible.
Equal edges