Archaeology is the study of human activity through recovery and analysis of material culture. Within Southeast Asia, this practice, within the western tradition, was introduced by European colonization. During the colonial period, the vast majority of the lands of Southeast Asia were under European control. This left the lands riddled with the remnants of this colonial history, as well as those of the peoples who sought to resist their rule. This article covers the archaeological study of those remnants.
European colonization of Southeast Asia
The source of many material distributions in Southeast Asia was a result of the Silk Road era; it consisted of historical sea and land trade routes across Afro-Eurasian that connects East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and the European world. It also included North and East Africa. The Silk Road consisted of trade routes that were expanding overtime due to different colonies’ desires for specific items.Waugh, D. C. (2010). The silk roads in history. Expedition: The magazine of the University of Pennsylvania, (52), 9-22.
The Silk Road Trade
The 15th to 17th centuries was a time known as the “age of discovery” in Southeast Asia because of the recognition and demand of SE Asia's natural resources from European powers.Dean, G. (1999). The Importance and Consequences of Trade in Southeast Asia till 1870. In SE Asia, spices were useful and popular for creating flavor in food. Spices were in high demand and were imported and exported through the Silk Road, which flourished during the colonization period. It included black pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, and cloves, etc. Nutmeg was the most popular and most expensive to get because of how scarce it was.
European colonization of Southeast Asia
The European colonization of Southeast Asia began in the 16th century when the Dutch and Portuguese colonized Southeast Asia for their spices. Throughout the 17th and 18th century, the British and Dutch began to colonize Southeast Asia. The Dutch arrived in Batavia and established Dutch East Indies. The British established themselves in the Straits Settlements, British Malaya, Borneo, and Burma. In the 19th century, the French established French Indochina. All of Southeast Asia was colonized, except Thailand.
Not only spices, but also ceramics, stoneware, and porcelain were popular items used for trading in Southeast Asia. Mainland Southeast Asia is distinguished by the ongoing complementary coexistence of two major ceramic traditions-earthenware and stoneware. The first evidence of earthware ceramics was in Japan 12,000 years ago. Pottery and clay vessels originated from China 20,000 years ago. The earliest forms of stoneware were found in Indus Valley Civilisation and China. The Xia dynasty, during 1700–1050 BCE, had evidence of the earliest forms of stoneware, which is a source of where the product originated from. Stoneware production has continued for more than three thousand years. These two basic types of clay bodies have been used for processing, amending, and forming of the clay body; the use of resins, pigments, slips, and glazes; and the development of firing procedures and kilns.Kurin, R. (2002). The silk road: connecting peoples and cultures. The Silk Road: connecting cultures, creating trust: the 36th annual Smithsonian Folklife Festival on the National Mall, 26-30.
Dutch colonization of Indonesia The Dutch used trade to change the political and physical geography of Indonesia. The first Dutch fleet arrived in Indonesia in 1596 and in 1619 they seized Jakarta (the Capital of Indonesia) and established the city of Batavia.Tarling, N. (Ed.). (1992). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 1, from Early Times to C. 1800 (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. Forts were established to ensure they maintained power and control, some of the most historic forts can be found in the Banda Islands, also known as the spice islands. A well-known fort is Fort Nassua, in the Banda Islands. It was built by the Dutch in 1609, it was the center for the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), "United East India Company", which was the primary trading company of the Dutch.Hanna, W. A. (1978). Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands. Institute for the study of human issues. Similarly to Batavia, the Banda Islands were used as a center for trade and a place to capitalize on the spice market. In the 16th century the Banda Islands were the only known source of nutmeg, consequently making them a major site for power in the world of trade.Jordan, A. J. (2016). The Price of Spice: Archaeological Investigations of Colonial Era Nutmeg Plantations on the Banda Islands, Maluku Province, Indonesia (Doctoral dissertation).
Archaeological Evidence in Dutch Forts and the Banda Islands The Dutch forts, Fort Diamond and Fort Speelwijk in Banten, Java were studied and analyzed to shed light on the interaction between Bantanese elite and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Archaeological evidence, such as utensils and vessels that were used to prepare and serve meals show that there was a sort of “reverse” colonialism were indigenous Bantanese culture had a greater influence on the Dutch, than vice versa.Ueda, K. (2015). An archaeological investigation of hybridization in Bantenese and Dutch colonial encounters: Food and foodways in the sultanate of Banten, Java, 17 th-early 19 th century. Boston University.
Another site of archaeological work can be found in the Banda Islands. The Banda Islands, specifically an area known as Groot Walling, was studied to find whether nutmeg plantations were used as a signal of social identity. The study thus focused on material culture to see if inhabitants reacted to shifts in social and political control and the different trade distributions of goods. Findings, such as a combination of ceramic, funal remains, and starch grins were analyzed, there was evidence of both European and Chinese tradeware but European, specifically English and Dutch tradeware dominates. Findings thus suggest that indigenous inhabitants may have adopted symbols of elite power through trading. Another study, conducted by archaeologists, Carlson and Jordan, also studied Groot Walling and the culture of the plantation in the 16th century. They tested the hypothesis that the plantation was used to produce inequality and as a way for inhabitants to patrol and surveil each other. They studied the design of the plantation compound; their findings eventually refuted their hypothesis and instead suggested a different form of surveillance. A system, unlike those in the Caribbean islands which adhere to strong social control.CARlSoN, D. R., & Jordan, A. (2013). Visibility and Power: Preliminary Analysis of Social Control on a Bandanese Plantation Compound, Eastern Indonesia. Asian Perspectives, 52(2), 213-243.
Spanish colonization of the Philippines An expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan was the headwind of the Spanish conquest of the Philippine islands, followed by expeditions headed by López de Villalobos, who in 1542, named the islands after King Philip.Borlaza, Gregorio C., and Carolina G. Hernandez. “Philippines.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 23 Feb. 2018, www.britannica.com/place/Philippines/The-Spanish-period. Archeological evidence in the form of the wreckage of the San Diego ship, and the artifacts left behind suggest that the Spaniards arriving in the Philippines were there for conquest. San Diego's Astrolabe was a part of the San Diego's shipwreck, found along with many other artifacts including cannons and guns off the coast of Nasugbu, dates back to December 14, 1600. The heavy load of artillery brought over by the Spanish correlates strongly with the time of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines.Fish, S. (2011). The Manila-Acapulco galleons: the treasure ships of the Pacific: with an annotated list of the transpacific galleons 1565-1815. AuthorHouse.
In 1564 the first moves towards colonizing were taken by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. The Spanish city of Manila was established in the Philippines in 1571, effectively establishing Spanish roots in the Philippines. The Spanish colonizers began cutting out all threats to their grip on power, starting with the increasing Chinese population in 1603, massacring thousands of Chinese people.
Evidence of Philippine Archaeology Archeological evidence of the presence of the Chinese in the Philippines was present in the form of the Oton Death Mask. The death mask, dated between the 14th and the 15th century A.D., was discovered by Alfredo Evangelista and F. Landa Jocan in the city of San Antonio, Oton. This archeological find suggests that the Southern Chinese traders brought this practice over to the Philippines. This mask was used to protect the dead from evil spirits.National Museum Collections, (2014). National Cultural Treasures of Philippine Archaeology. Another piece of archeological evidence that suggests Chinese presence in the Philippines is the Flying Elephant of Leona Shoal. The Flying Elephant was a blue and white china dish dating to the 15th century A.D. from the Ming dynasty in China.“VCM.” VIRTUAL COLLECTION OF ASIAN MASTERPIECES, 1997, masterpieces.asemus.museum/masterpiece/detail.nhn?objectId=11376. Not only was their cultural diffusion between the Chinese and Philippines, through diffusion of religious practices, but also material culture.
In 1941, WWII hit the Philippines with the Japanese invasion, which ultimately resulted in the Philippine-US forces being defeated in 1942. Many Japanese artifacts are still being found until this day in the Philippines, including five Japanese warships from the battle of Surigao Strait in 1944.Kyodo, Staff Report. “Wrecks of Japanese and U.S. Warships - Including First American Vessel to Fire Shot in WWII - Found off Philippines.” The Japan Times, 8 Dec. 2017, www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/12/08/national/history/wrecks-believed-5-japanese-wartime-ships-found-southern-philippines/#.WpSDcIJG2b8.
British colonization of Singapore Insular Southeast Asia is known as one of the most beautiful regions on earth today. When people immerse themselves into the various cultures that are a part of Southeast Asia, they find that influences from colonialism have shaped the native people's perspectives and ways of life. For example, Singapore has been colonized by British influence, and has resulted in adaptation to their culture. Through this adaptation, colonization from Britain has allowed the native people of Singapore to develop interest in finding their roots through archaeological excavations. Archaeology in Singapore is relatively new, with excavations beginning in the 20th century. The findings, however, have dated back to ancient China.