Ātman (; ) in Hinduism is the true, innermost essence or self of a living being, conceived as eternal and unchanging. Atman is conceptually closely related to the individual self, Jīvātman, which persists across multiple bodies and lifetimes, but different from the self-idea or ego (Ahamkara), the emotional aspect of the mind (Citta), and the bodily or natural aspects (prakṛti). The term is often translated as soul, but is better translated as "Self" or essence. To attain moksha (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (Atmajnana or Brahmajnana).
The six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have different views on what this self is. In Samkhya and Yoga, which call the essence purusha, and in Advaita Vedanta, the essence is pure consciousness or witness-consciousness (sakshi), beyond identification with phenomena.Jeffrey D. Long, Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, p.50 In Samkhya and Yoga there are innumerable selves, while in Advaita Vedanta there is only one Self. Prominent views in Vedanta on the relation between (Jīv)Atman and the supreme Self (Paramātmā) or Ultimate Reality (Brahman) are that atman and Brahman are simultaneously different and non-different (Bhedabheda),Bhedabheda: non-different (Advaita, 'not-two'),Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, , page 64, Quote: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman". and different with dependence (Dvaita, 'dualist'),Dvaita: and or non-different but with dependence (Vishishtadvaita, qualified non-dualism.
The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman in every living being (jiva), which is distinct from the body-mind complex. This is a major point of difference with the Buddhist doctrine of Anatta, which holds that in essence there is no unchanging essence or Self to be found in the empirical constituents of a living being, intentionally ambiguous on what it is that is liberated. While essentialist positions are seemingly found in Buddhism, such as in Madhyamika (sunyata) and Yogachara ('mere representation'), presenting broad similarities to non-dualist traditions of Hinduism, the concept of ātman remains anathema to the foundations of Buddhism.
Etymology and meaning
Etymology Ātman (Atma, आत्मा, आत्मन्) is a Sanskrit word that refers to "essence, breath, soul." It is thought to be derived from the reconstructed hypothetical Proto-Indo-European word *etmen "breath" (a root found in Sanskrit and Germanic; source also of Old English æðm, Dutch adem, Old High German atum "breath," Old English eþian, Dutch ademen "to breathe").
Meaning Olivelle notes that ātman "has many meanings and usages in the Upanisadic vocabulary," including "Self," "the ultimate essence of a human being," but is also used to refer to "a living, breathing body," and as reflexive pronoun, akin to "myself."
In contemporary Hinduism, Ātman means "real Self" of the individual, "innermost essence." Atman refers to the essence of human beings that persists amid change, distinct from the ever-evolving embodied individual being (jiva) embedded in material reality. Embodied personality can change while Atman does not. In Advaita Vedanta, it is the observing pure consciousness or witness-consciousness, "pure, undifferentiated, self-shining consciousness," while in Neo-Advaita it is also the nonconceptual insight that 'being' cannot be grasped in words or deeds.
While often translated as "soul", it is better translated as "self." As such, it is different from non-Hindu notions of soul, which includes consciousness but also the mental abilities of a living being, such as reason, character, feeling, consciousness, memory, perception and thinking. In Hinduism, these are all included in embodied reality, the counterpart of Atman.[a] ;[b] ;[c]
Development of the concept
Vedas The earliest use of the word Ātman in Indian texts is found in the Rig Veda (RV X.97.11).ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.९७, Wikisource; Quote: "यदिमा वाजयन्नहमोषधीर्हस्त आदधे । आत्मा यक्ष्मस्य नश्यति पुरा जीवगृभो यथा ॥११॥ Yāska, the ancient Indian grammarian, commenting on this Rigvedic verse, accepts the following meanings of Ātman: the pervading principle, the organism in which other elements are united and the ultimate sentient principle.Baumer, Bettina and Vatsyayan, Kapila. Kalatattvakosa Vol. 1: Pervasive Terms Vyapti (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts). Motilal Banarsidass; Revised edition (March 1, 2001). P. 42. .
Other hymns of Rig Veda where the word Ātman appears include I.115.1, VII.87.2, VII.101.6, VIII.3.24, IX.2.10, IX.6.8, and X.168.4.Source 1: Rig veda Sanskrit;Source 2: ऋग्वेदः/संहिता Wikisource
Upanishads Ātman is a central topic in all of the Upanishads, and "know your Ātman" is a recurring principle throughout.PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, , pages 35-36 The Upanishads describe the atman as both "the ultimate essence of the universe" and "the vital breath in human beings", which is an "imperishable Divine within" that is neither born nor dies.
The Upanishads express two distinct, divergent themes on the relation between Atman and Brahman. Some teach that Brahman (highest reality; universal principle; being-consciousness-bliss) is identical with Ātman, while others teach that Ātman is part of Brahman but not identical to it.Paul Deussen, , Dover Publications, pages 86-111, 182-212 This ancient debate developed into various dual and non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~100 BCE) synthesized and unified these conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects, particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different (advaita). According to Koller, this synthesis countered the dualistic tradition of Samkhya-Yoga schools and realism-driven traditions of Nyaya-Vaiseshika schools, allowing it to emerge as the foundation of Vedanta as Hinduism's most influential spiritual tradition.
According to several Upaniṣadic texts, the atman is present within the human body, extending even to the extremities such as the tips of the nails (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.7). Although the atman pervades the entire body, the Upanishads often emphasize the heart, not as a physical organ but as an inner "cave" or guha, as the atman's special locus. It is described as lying deep within the heart (Chandogya Upanishad III.14.3-4).
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (800-600 BCEPatrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, , page 12-13) describes Atman as that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description.Raju, Poolla Tirupati. Structural Depths of Indian Thought. SUNY Series in Philosophy. P. 26. . In hymn 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes Atman as Brahman, and describes the self as made of everything, including the functions, elements and desires:
The theme of acquiring knowledge of Brahman, and thereby becoming godlike, is extensively repeated in Brihadāranyaka Upanishad. Not even gods can prevail over such a liberated man, to their dismay. For example, in hymn 1.4.10,
Chandogya Upanishad The Chandogya Upanishad (7th-6th c. BCE) explains Ātman as that which appears to be separate between two living beings but isn't, that essence and innermost, true, radiant self of all individuals which connects and unifies all. Hymn 6.10 explains it with the example of rivers, some of which flow to the east and some to the west, but ultimately all merge into the ocean and become one. In the same way, the individual souls are pure being, states the Chandogya Upanishad; an individual soul is pure truth, and an individual soul is a manifestation of the ocean of one universal soul.Max Müller, Upanishads, Wordsworth, , pages XXIII-XXIV
Katha Upanishad Along with the Brihadāranyaka, all the earliest and middle Upanishads discuss Ātman as they build their theories to answer how man can achieve liberation, freedom and bliss. The Katha Upanishad (5th to 1st century BCE) explains Atman as the imminent and transcendent innermost essence of each human being and living creature, that this is one, even though the external forms of living creatures manifest in different forms. Hymn 2.2.9 states:
Katha Upanishad, in Book 1, hymns 3.3-3.4, describes the widely cited proto-Samkhya analogy of chariot for the relation of "Soul, Self" to body, mind and senses.Sanskrit Original: आत्मानँ रथितं विद्धि शरीरँ रथमेव तु । बुद्धिं तु सारथिं विद्धि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च ॥ ३ ॥ इन्द्रियाणि हयानाहुर्विषयाँ स्तेषु गोचरान् । आत्मेन्द्रियमनोयुक्तं भोक्तेत्याहुर्मनीषिणः ॥ ४ ॥, Katha Upanishad Wikisource;English Translation: Max Müller, Katha Upanishad Third Valli, Verse 3 & 4 and through 15, pages 12-14 Stephen KaplanStephen Kaplan (2011), The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science, (Editors: James W. Haag, Gregory R. Peterson, Michael L. Speziopage), Routledge, , page 323 translates these hymns as, "Know the Self as the rider in a chariot, and the body as simply the chariot. Know the intellect as the charioteer, and the mind as the reins. The senses, they say are the horses, and sense objects are the paths around them". The Katha Upanishad then declares that "when the Self [Ātman] understands this and is unified, integrated with body, senses and mind, is virtuous, mindful and pure, he reaches bliss, freedom and liberation".
Bhagavad Gita In Bhagavad Gita verses 10-30 of the second chapter, Krishna urges Arjuna to understand the indestructible nature of the atman, emphasizing that it transcends the finite body it inhabits. The atman neither kills nor can be killed, as it is eternal and unaffected by birth or death. The analogy of changing clothes is used to illustrate how the soul discards old bodies for new ones. Krishna emphasizes the eternal existence of the soul by explaining that even as it undergoes various life stages and changes bodies it remains unaffected. It is imperceptible, inconceivable, and unchanging.
Indian philosophy
Orthodox schools
Atman is a metaphysical and spiritual concept for Hindus, often discussed in their scriptures with the concept of Brahman. All major orthodox schools of Hinduism – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta – accept the foundational premise of the Vedas and Upanishads that "Ātman exists." In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle.Deussen, Paul and Geden, A. S. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Cosimo Classics (June 1, 2010). P. 86. . Jainism too accepts this premise, although it has its own idea of what that means. In contrast, both Buddhism and the Charvakas deny that there is anything called "Ātman/soul/self".
Samkhya
In Samkhya, the oldest Hindu school of Dualism, Puruṣa, the witness-consciousness, is Atman. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce. No appellations can qualify purusha, nor can it substantialized or objectified. It "cannot be reduced, can't be 'settled'." Any designation of purusha comes from prakriti, and is a limitation. Unlike Advaita Vedanta, and like Purva-Mīmāṃsā, Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruṣas.