Human ecosystems are human-dominated ecosystems of the Anthropocene era that are viewed as complex cybernetic systems by conceptual models that are increasingly used by ecological anthropologists and other scholars to examine the ecological aspects of human communities in a way that integrates multiple factors such as economics, sociopolitical organization, psychological factors, and physical factors related to the environment.
A human ecosystem has three central organizing concepts: human environed units (an individual or group of individuals), environment, interactions and transactions between and within the components. The total environment in human ecosystems have been described in three components: natural, human-constructed, and human behavioral. While this framework is commonly considered, scholars argue that it reflects an anthropocentric perspective by centering human activity within the environment. Different human communities conceptualize the environment in ways that reflect their individual cultural values with the non-human world. For example, Indigenous scholars such as Kyle Powys Whyte describe the environment not as separate from the human, but as a large network of reciprocal relationships among humans, non-humans, and the land. Whyte, Kyle, Our Ancestors’ Dystopia Now: Indigenous Conservation and the Anthropocene (September 8, 2016). Routledge Companion to the Environmental Humanities, Forthcoming, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2770047 Expanding its definition to include multiple cultural perspectives can provide a more comprehensive understanding of human ecosystems. Which is important because these environments furnish the resources and conditions necessary for life and constitute a life-support system.
Systems of power in human ecosystems Human ecosystems are shaped not only by interactions between people and their environments but also by the systems of power that influence how people interact with the environment. Solomonian, L., Di Ruggiero, E. The critical intersection of environmental and social justice: a commentary. Global Health 17, 30 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-021-00686-4 These systems affect several facets of human societies such as political, economic, and social structures, all of which determine how individuals and groups of individuals interact within an ecosystem.
Systems of power refers to the organized structures in which power is delegated within society. These systems operate at every level, from local communities to global institutions. And these systems shape not just formal legalities such as laws and economic policies but heavily shape cultural norms and social interactions, which are so deeply ingrained, they become nearly impossible to see. Along with the differences in how systems of power shape society, it's also important to note that power within human ecosystems is not distributed evenly. Power is concentrated with the global elite. And in turn, decisions for the betterment of society are oftentimes for about 20-30% of the global population, at the expense of the rest. Understanding systems of powers can help clarify how human ecosystems function within and with their surrounding environments.
Political systems, such as governments and local authorities, also have an important role within human ecosystems. They regulate things like land usage, environmental policies, and general access to resources.Blaikie, Piers. "Changing environments or changing views? A political ecology for developing countries." Geography 80.3 (1995): 203-214. For example, zoning laws and environmental regulations can shape urban development and influence the sustainability of human ecosystems.End of the line: Environmental justice, energy justice, and opposition to power lines. Environmental Politics, 31(4), 663–683. Specifically, this can be seen in government policies on the dumping of nuclear waste in locations seen as expendable. This has affected large areas of Spokane, Washington State, and the Yakama Reservations.LaDuke, Winona. “Nuclear Waste: Dumping on the Indians” All Our Relations, 2016
Social hierarchies, such as class, race, and gender, further influence power dynamics within human ecosystems. These factors create unequal access to both environmental benefits and burdens. Communities with less political or economic power may be disproportionately exposed to environmental burdens such as pollution.Parkes, M., Panelli, R., & Weinstein, P. (1999). Links between humans and ecosystems: The implications of framing for health promotion strategies. Health Promotion International, 14(1), 65–72. For example, there has been much documentation on how marginalized communities are disproportionately affected by infrastructures like landfills, mines, incinerators, and ecologically harmful transportation systems. These communities also experience negative consequences of climate change and pesticide exposure at a larger scale.Pellow DN. TOWARD A CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE STUDIES: Black Lives Matter as an Environmental Justice Challenge. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race. 2016;13(2):221-236. doi:10.1017/S1742058X1600014X One specific example of this is from restoration ecologist, Eric Krieg, “Communities where people of color make up 25% or more of the total population average nearly five times as many pounds of chemical emissions from polluting industrial facilities per square mile as compared to communities where less than 5% of the population are people of color”.Krieg, Eric J., and Daniel R. Faber. "Not so black and white: environmental justice and cumulative impact assessments." Environmental impact assessment review 24.7-8 (2004): 667-694.
Environmental justice Environmental justice is a concept that examines the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, particularly with respect to marginalized communities.Pellow, David Naguib, and Robert J. Brulle. "Power, justice, and the environment: Toward critical environmental justice studies." Power, justice, and the environment: A critical appraisal of the environmental justice movement (2005): 1-19. Within human ecosystems, environmental justice is concerned with how a myriad of factors can influence who has access to things like clean air and water and how environmental risks like pollution are unevenly distributed among human populations.
In many human ecosystems, environmental injustice is closely linked to already existing social structures. Communities with lower income levels or less political influence are often more likely to experience exposure to environmental hazards. This can be seen with gold mining in Kalimantan, Indonesia. This area largely homes low-income communities who work in these mines. It has been found that approximately 1/3 of global anthropogenic emissions have been released into the environment from this location, leading to environmental degradation and lower quality of living for the people that live in Kalimantan.Caravanos, J., Ericson, B., Ponce-Canchihuamán, J. et al. Rapid assessment of environmental health risks posed by mining operations in low- and middle-income countries: selected case studies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20, 7711–7718 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1424-9 These burdens are frequently the result of historical social foundations, such as discriminatory policies, which shape how human ecosystems evolve over time.
Environmental injustice can have significant effects on the health and well-being of communities within a human ecosystem. Limited access to environmental resources and increased exposure to environmental hazards can contribute to long-term issues. Communities facing environmental injustice are often exposed to higher levels of pollution, which has been associated with increased rates of respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular disease, and many other chronic health problems. This inadequate access to resources can further worsen overall quality of life. An example of this is with the Catalao Floating Community. As the demand for AI data centers has risen, there has been an increasing lack of drinking water for this community. As a direct result of not having fresh water, the community has had to put up with precarious sanitation, water contamination and unstable energy supplies, all things that have overall lowered the community's quality of life.Machado, Ana Lucia, and Goreti Marreiros. "Integration of AI into a Digital Platform for Sustainability in the Floating Community of Lake Catalão, Amazonas–Brazil." (2025).
Beyond the individual health impacts, environmental injustice can affect the resilience of whole communities. When disadvantaged communities are burdened with these environmental risks, their ability to respond to any additional difficulties like environmental disasters is also affected. An example of this was with Flint, Michigan, the population there did not have the means or political power to fight back/protest the lead contaminated water and so they were unable to respond to the issue effectively.Kennedy, Merrit. “Lead-Laced Water in Flint: A Step-by-Step Look at the Makings of a Crisis.” NPR, 20 Apr. 2016 Understanding environmental justice is important in studying human ecosystems because it provides insight into how and why environmental outcomes may differ amongst different human populations.
Environmental justice can also be looked at through the lenses of the nonhuman world. Human ecosystems are not just about interactions between human communities, but also between human/communities and the non-human world.Silkenat, David. “Conclusion.” Scars on the Land: An Environmental History of Slavery in the American South, Oxford University Press, 2022, pp. 168–172 The non-human world is oftentimes seen as expendable, a resource to be extracted and used for human benefits. This has led to devastation of land, water, and climate. An example of this is in the American South, where the expanding slave front had left soils overharvested and eroded, waterways polluted, and forests cut down.
Sociopolitical organization Within human ecosystems, sociopolitical organizations play a central role in controlling environmental resources. Governments have the power to determine how resources like land and water are allocated. An example of this can be seen in Nicaragua, where their central government has complete control over how natural resources are extracted, preserved, and used. While, legally, the central government is required to consider the municipal government's opinion on the allocation/exploitation of natural resources, the central government oftentimes disregards dissenting opinions, as they have the final say on all contracts regarding things like forestry, mining, and fishing exploitation.Larson, Anne M. "Formal decentralisation and the imperative of decentralisation ‘from below’: a case study of natural resource management in Nicaragua." The European Journal of Development Research 16.1 (2004): 55-70. Structures like the one in Nicaragua can influence the development of environmental policies, which will have a domino effect in affecting sustainability outcomes at local, regional, and global scales. Variations within sociopolitical organization can lead to different approaches to environmental decision-making.Kiker, Gregory A., et al. "Application of multicriteria decision analysis in environmental decision making." Integrated environmental assessment and management 1.2 (2005): 95-108.