Kurma (), is the second avatar of the Hindu preserver deity, Vishnu. Originating in Vedic literature such as the Yajurveda as being synonymous with the Saptarishi called Kashyapa, Kurma is most commonly associated in post-Vedic literature such as the Puranas. He prominently appears in the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, referred to as the Samudra Manthana. Along with being synonymous with Akupara, the World-Turtle supporting the Earth, Kurma is listed as the 2nd avatar in the Dashavatara, which are the ten principal incarnations of Vishnu.
Nomenclature and etymology The Sanskrit word 'Kurma' (Devanagari: कूर्म) means 'Tortoise' and 'Turtle'. The tortoise incarnation of Vishnu is also referred to in post-Vedic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana as 'Kacchapa' (कच्छप), 'Kamaṭha' (कमठ), 'Akupara' (अकूपार), and 'Ambucara-Atmana' (अम्बुचर-आत्मना), all of which mean 'tortoise' or 'form of a tortoise'.
The Nirukta Written by the grammarian Yaska, the Nirukta is one of the six Vedangas or 'limbs of the Vedas', concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas. The entry for the Tortoise states (square brackets '[ ]' are as per the original author):
Kashyapa As illustrated below, Vedic literature such as the Samaveda and Yajurveda explicitly state Akupara/Kurma and the sage Kashyapa are Synonymous. Kashyapa - also meaning 'Tortoise' - is considered the Progenitor of all living beings with his thirteen wives, including vegetation, as related by H.R. Zimmer:
The legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk (Samudra Manthana) developed in post-Vedic literature is itself inextricably linked with Kurma (as the base of the churning rod) and involves other sons of Kashyapa: the devas/adityas (born from Aditi) and the asuras/Danavas/Daityas (born from Danu and Diti) use one of the Naga (born from Kadru) as a churning rope to obtain Amrita. Garuda, the king of birds and mount of Vishnu, is another son of Kashyapa (born from Vinata) often mentioned in this legend. In another, Garuda seeks the Amrita produced (eating a warring Elephant And Tortoise in the process) to free his mother and himself from enslavement from Kadru.
Yoga Kurmasana (Tortoise Posture) is a Yoga posture. 'Panikacchapika' (Sanskrit पाणिकच्छपिका), meaning 'Hand Tortoise', is a special positioning of the fingers during worship rituals to symbolise Kurma. The Kurmacakra is a Yantra, a mystical diagram for worship, in the shape of a tortoise. These are all mentioned in the Upanishads and Puranas (see below).
Symbolism
The Dashavataras are compared to evolution; Kurma - the amphibian - is regarded the next stage after Matysa, the fish.
Firmness / Steadiness: W. Caland notes that in relation to 'Akupara Kashyapa' in the Pancavimsa Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana, the tortoise is equal to 'a firm standing... and Kashyapa (The Tortoise) is able to convey (them) across the sea [of material existence]'. P.N. Sinha seems to support this view, adding 'Kurma was a great Avatara as He prepared the way for the spiritual regeneration of the universe, by the Churning of the Ocean Of Milk'.
Deity Yajna-Purusha: N. Aiyangar states that as the tortoise was 'used as the very basis of the fire Altar, the hidden invisible tortoise, taken together with the altar and the sacred fire, seems to have been regarded as symbolizing the Deity Yajna-Purusha who is an invisible spiritual god extending from the fire altar up to heaven and everywhere... this seems to be the reason why the tortoise is identified with the sun'.
Meditation / Churning the Mind: Aiyangar also surmises that the legend of the Samudra Manthana symbolises churning the mind through Meditation to achieve liberation (Moksha). Based on the mention of Vatarasanaḥ ('Girdled By The Wind') Munis in the Taittirtya Aranyaka - also referred to as urdhvamanthin, meaning 'those who churn upwards' - and the explanation provided in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Aiyangar believes this would 'appear to be the hidden pivot on which the gist of the riddle of the Puranic legend about the Churning For Nectar turns'. R. Jarow seems to agree, stating the churning of the Ocean of Milk represents the 'Churning Of The Dualistic Mind'.
Ascetic Penance: H.H. Wilson notes that 'the account [of the Samudra Manthana] in the Hari Vamsa... is explained, by the commentator, as an Allegory, in which the churning of the ocean typifies ascetic penance, and the Ambrosia is final Liberation' (Linking With The Idea Of 'Steadiness' And 'Firmness'), but personally dismisses this interpretation as 'Mere Mystification' (Note 1, pp. 146).
Astronomy: B.G. Sidharth states that the legend of the Samudra Manthana symbolises astronomic phenomena, for example that 'Mandara represents the polar regions of Earth [and the] Churning Rope, Vasuki, symbolizes the slow annual motion of Earth... Vishnu, or the Sun himself rests upon a coiled snake... which represents the rotation of the Sun on its own axis'. In regards to the tortoise supporting the Earth, Sidharth adds that the 'Twelve Pillars... are evidently the twelve months of the year, and... The four elephants on which Earth rests are the Dikarin, the sentinels of the four directions.. [Kurma] symbolizes the fact that Earth is supported in space in its annual orbit around the Sun'.
Vedas A.A. Macdonell, A.B. Keith, J. Roy, J. Dowson, and W.J. Wilkins all state that the origin of Kurma is in the Vedas, specifically the Shatapatha Brahmana (related to the YajurVeda), where the name is also synonymous with Kashyapa, one of the Saptarishi (seven sages).
The Shatapatha Brahmana is the earliest extant text to mention Kurma, the tortoise. The Shatapatha Brahmana equates the tortoise - Kurma to the creator of all creatures. The god Prajapati assumes the form of Kurma to create all creatures (praja). Since he "made" (kar) all, Prajapati's form was called Kurma. Kurma is equated with Kashyapa (literally "tortoise"), thus all creatures are called "children of Kashyapa". Kurma is also called Surya (the sun).
The Shatapatha Brahmana also has the origins of Matsya, the Fish. Like Kurma, Matsya is also associated as the avatar of Vishnu later in the Puranas.
The Taittiriya Samhita suggests a ritual of burying a live tortoise at the base of the sacrificial fire altar (uttar-vedi). By this act, the sacrificer earns the merit of reaching heaven. Aiyangar suggests that the tortoise symbolizes Yajna-Purusha, the all-pervading god of Sacrifice. In another instance in the Taittiriya Samhita where Prajapati assigns sacrifices for the gods and places the oblation within himself, "the Sacrificial Cake" (Purodasa) is said to become a tortoise.
The Taittiriya Aranyaka describes a similar practice in a ritual called Arunaketuka-kayana where the tortoise is buried under the altar. Here, Prajapati or his "juice" (rasa) the tortoise is called Arunaketu ("one who has red rays"). Prajapati performs austerities (tapas). From his rasa springs a tortoise swimming in the water. Prajapati declares to the tortoise to be his creation; in response the tortoise says that he has existed from "before" and manifests as Purusha - the primordial being and creates various deities including the sun, Agni (the fire), Indra, Vayu (the wind) and various beings. The tortoise is again treated as the divine Creator of the universe.
R.T.H. Griffith states that tortoises were buried in construction of the Ahavaniya Fire-Altar. In this context, the Vajasaneyi Samhita of the white Yajurveda describes the tortoise as the "lord of the waters". The selection of the tortoise may stream from the belief that it supports the world.
Though Kurma is not found in the oldest Hindu scripture Rigveda, the seer Kashyapa (who is equated with Kurma) appears in hymns in the scripture. The Atharvaveda regards Kashyapa, who is mentioned along with or identified with Prajapati, as svayambhu ("self-manifested"). In later Hindu scriptures like the epics and the Puranas, Kashyapa is described as the grandfather of Manu, the progenitor of mankind. Apart from described as one of Saptarishi (seven great sages), he is described as one of the Prajapatis ("agents of creation") and marries 13 daughters of Daksha, fathering gods, demons, animals, birds and various living beings. The seer Kashyapa, tortoise, being referred in various later Vedic literature as the progenitor of beings, is inferred by A.A. Macdonell along with other animal-based tribal names in the Rigveda to suggest totemism; however E.W. Hopkins disagrees.
The Rigveda also refers in a hymn that Vayu churned for the sages (munis) and Rudra drinks from a cup of visha, which can be mean water or poison. John Muir suggests that visha in the Rigveda refers to Rudra drinking water, however it may have led to, in the Puranas, the legend of Shiva (who is closely linked to the Vedic Rudra) drinking poison in the Samudra Manthana (churning of the ocean) episode.
Samaveda SamaReferencesNotesPancavimsa Brahmana15.5.30This verse is in regards to Kashyapa, synonymous with Kurma ('Tortoise').Jaiminiya Brahmana3.210As stated by W. Caland in his translation of the Pancavisma Brahmana. Caland's German translation of the Jaiminiya Brahmana with this verse is available.
The sage Kashyapa - stated in the Vedas, Itihāsa (Epics), and Puranas to be the progenitor of all living beings (see relevant sections, below) - is also stated to be synonymous with Akupara, the name of the 'World-Turtle' in the Mahabharata. Caland explains in his footnote to verse 30 the significance of this name by quoting from the Jaiminiya Brahmana:
The Jaiminiya Brahmana explicitly links Akupara, Kashyapa, and the tortoise in regards to providing a 'Firm Standing' to cross over the sea of material existence. As illustrated below, in the Yajurveda, Kashyapa is also stated to be Synonymous with Prajapati (i.e. the Creator-God Brahma) and with Kurma. In the Puranas, Kashyapa is frequently referred to as 'Prajapati' as well.
Epics
Swami Achuthananda states that although varied like other legends, Vishnu's role is "limited" as Kurma, compared his other avatars.
The epics present the earliest known versions of the popular Samudra Manthana narrative. In the Adi Parva Book of the epic Mahabharata, the god Narayana (identified with Vishnu) suggests the gods (devas) and the demons (asuras) churn the ocean to obtain amrita (ambrosia) as both of them seek immortality. The gods select Mount Mandara as the churning rod and the serpent Vasuki-Ananta as the rope. Then they approach Kurma-raja, the king of tortoises to support the mount on its back, which it consented. The gods churn from the tail side of the serpent, while asuras on the head side. Various trees and herbs are cast into the ocean. The churned water takes into milk. Ultimately, various precious items like Soma (the moon), the goddess Sri (Lakshmi), Sura (liquor), the white horse Uchchaihshravas, the white elephant Airavata, the gem Kaustubha and finally the god Dhanvantari with the vessel of amrita emerge from the ocean. The poison kalakuta springs from the ocean and is drunk by Shiva, whose throat becomes blue earning him the epithet Nila-kantha (The blue necked). The devas and asuras battle for the amrita. Narayana becomes an enchanting woman (called Mohini in later scriptures) and snatch the pot of amrita from the asuras. Narayana along with Nara battle the asuras, while the enchantress distributes the amrita only to the gods. Rahu, an asura, disguises himself as a god and tries to drink some Amrita himself. Surya (the sun-god) and Chandra (the moon-god) quickly inform Vishnu, and he uses the Chakra (the divine discus) to decapitate Rahu, leaving the head immortal. Eventually, the gods defeat the asuras with Indra retaining the amrita and appointing Nara as its guardian.