"Legend has it that the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Gediminas, was hunting in the sacred forest near the Valley of Šventaragis. Tired after the successful day's hunt, the Grand Duke settled in nearby for the night. He fell soundly asleep and began to dream. A huge Iron Wolf was standing on top of a hill and the sound of hundreds of other wolves inside it filled all of the surrounding fields and woods. Upon awakening, the Duke asked the pagan priest Lizdeika to interpret the meaning of the dream." And the priest told him: "What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus: the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, and the glory of their deeds shall echo throughout the world" The Legend of the Founding of VilniusVilnius legend The city of Vilnius, the capital and largest city of Lithuania, has an extensive history starting from the Stone Age. The city has changed hands many times between Imperial and Soviet Russia, Napoleonic France, Imperial and Nazi Germany, Interwar Poland, and Lithuania.
Initially a Baltic settlement, Vilnius became a significant city under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1323 in letters by Grand Duke Gediminas, who invited Jews and Germans to settle and built a wooden castle on a hill. Vilnius gained city rights in 1387 after the Christianization of Lithuania and grew as craftsmen and merchants from various nationalities settled in the city. Vilnius was the head of the Grand Duchy until 1795, and during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under the Commonwealth, Vilnius flourished, especially after the establishment of Vilnius University by King Stephen Báthory in 1579. The city became a major cultural and scientific center, attracting migrants from both the East and West. It was marked by diverse communities, including Jewish, Orthodox, and German populations. The city experienced significant growth and development, though it faced numerous invasions and occupations, including by the Teutonic Knights, Russia, and later, Germany.
During the Russian Empire's rule, Vilnius became the capital of Vilna Governorate and saw various cultural revivals. The 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by national revivals among Jews, Poles, Lithuanians, and Belarusians. After World War I, Vilnius was often the site of conflict, between Poland and Lithuania, leading to its temporary occupation by Poland, before being annexed by the Soviet Union during World War II.
Following the war, Vilnius became the capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, and later, after the fall of the Soviet Union, it became the capital of an independent Lithuania. The city has since evolved rapidly, transforming from a Soviet-dominated enclave into a modern European city. Significant events, such as the NATO summit in July 2023, highlight Vilnius's ongoing importance on the international stage.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania Origins until 1400
The earliest settlements in the area of present-day Vilnius appear to be of Mesolithic origin. Numerous archaeological findings in different parts of the city prove that the area has been inhabited by peoples of various cultures since the early Middle Ages. Initially a Baltic settlement, later it was also inhabited by Slavs, Jews and Germans. Some historians identify the city with Voruta, a forgotten capital of King Mindaugas.
The city was first mentioned in written sources as Vilna in 1323 as the capital city of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the letters of Gediminas. Gediminas built his wooden castle on a hill in the city. The city became more widely known after he wrote a circular letter of invitation to Germans and Jews to the principal Hansa towns in 1325, offering free access into his domains to men of every order and profession. Gediminas founded first Dominican monastery in 1321. In the second half of the century church of St. Nicholas was erected. At this time Vilnius was facing numerous raids of the Teutonic Order, although they never captured the castle, large portions of the town were burned down in years 1365, 1377 and 1383.
According to a tale, tired after a busy hunting day, Gediminas had a prophetic dream about an iron wolf howling on a top of the hill. When he asked a krivis (a pagan priest) Lizdeika for an explanation of the dream, he was told that he must build a castle on the top of that hill, which is strategically surrounded by three rivers (Neris, Vilnia, and Vingria (now underground)) and a grand city around that hill, so that "the iron-wolf-like sound about this great city would spread around the world".
Vilnius was granted city rights by Jogaila in 1387, following the Christianization of Lithuania and the construction of the Vilnius Cathedral. The town was initially populated by local Lithuanians, but soon the population began to grow as craftsmen and merchants of other nationalities settled in the city. In the 14th century, the town was marked by wooden architecture. Stone building existed only at the foot of mount Gediminas and in the surroundings of the Vokiečių gatvė (German street), where German craftsmen and merchants were housed around the Church of Saint Nicholas.
In the 14th century, Lithuania was frequently invaded by the Teutonic Order. The future King of England Henry IV (then Henry Bolingbroke) spent a full year in 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of Vilnius by Teutonic Knights with his 300 knights. During this campaign, he bought captured Lithuanian women and children, and took them back to Königsberg for conversion to Christianity. King Henry's second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the financial benefits of these guest crusaders to the Order. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including longbow archers and six minstrels, at a total cost to the Lancastrian purse of £4,360. Despite the efforts of Bolingbroke and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless.
During the inaugurations of Lithuanian monarchs, Gediminas' Cap was placed on the monarch's head by the Bishop of Vilnius in Vilnius Cathedral.
15th century In 1409, Gediminas' Tower was built in Vilnius. In 1413, the city became the capital of the newly formed Vilnius Voivodeship by the Union of Horodło. In 1426, the Church of St. John was built. In 1469, the Church of Saints Bernard and Francis founded. At the end of the 15th century, St. Anne's Church was built, and consecrated in 1500.
The gradual Polonization of Vilnius, which began in the late 14th century, proceeded through the influx of Polish elements and assimilation of non-Polish burghers. The early Polish population was composed mainly of clerics, craftsmen and merchants, who migrated to the Lithuanian capital in particularly noticeable numbers after the Polish court of Sigismund August moved to Vilnius.Jerzy Ochmański, "The National Idea in Lithuania from the 16th to the First Half of the 19th Century: The Problem of Cultural-Linguistic Differentiation", Harvard Ukrainian Studies, Vol. X. No. 3/4. 1986, pp. 310-311.
Early 16th century until 1569 Between 1503 and 1522, for the sake of protection from Crimean Tatar attacks, the city was surrounded by defensive walls that had nine gates and three towers. Communities of Lithuanians, Jews, Ruthenians, and Germans were present in different areas of Vilnius. The Orthodox inhabitants concentrated in the eastern part of the city left of the "Castle Street", while most Germans and Jews occupied the western side of the city around the "German Street". The town reached the peak of its development under the reign of Sigismund II Augustus, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, who relocated there in 1544. In 1547, Sigismund II Augustus moved his royal court from Kraków to Vilnius, which had a great influence on the intellectual life of the region. In 1548, Sigismund II finished the Renaissance style reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, which was started by his father Sigismund I. In the 16th century, Vilnius became a constantly growing and developing city, as Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Sigismund II Augustus and his mother queen Bona Sforza were spending much of their time in the Royal Palace of Lithuania.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
After the Union of Lublin (1569) that created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the city flourished further in part due to the establishment of Vilnius University by Stephen Báthory, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1579. The university soon developed into one of the most important scientific and cultural centres of the region and the most notable scientific centre of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Political, economic and social life was in full swing there. This is among all proven by the Lithuanian Statutes issued in the 16th century, the last of which was still in force until the 19th century.
Rapidly developing, the city was open to migrants from both East and West. In addition to old citizens, larger Jewish, Orthodox and German communities established themselves in the city. Each group made its contribution to the life of the city, and crafts, trade and science prospered. In the 17th century, Polish and Polonized population began to dominate culturally and likely numerically.
In 1610, the city was racked by a large fire.Władysław Czapliński, Władysław IV i jego czasy (Władysław IV and His Times). PW "Wiedza Poweszechna". Warszawa 1976, p. 23 In 1655, during the First Northern War, Vilnius was captured by the forces of Tsardom of Russia and was pillaged, burned and the population was massacred. The death toll of around 20,000 included a large proportion of Vilnius Jews.Norman Davies, God's Playground: The origins to 1795, Columbia University Press, 2005, , Google Print, p.353 The city's growth lost its momentum for many years, yet the number of inhabitants recovered. During the Commonwealth's decline, Vilnius became known as "Jerusalem of the North" - a major religion-cultural centre of Eastern European Jewry.Andres Kasekamp, A History of the Baltic States, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p. 67. In 1769, the Rasos Cemetery was founded; today it is one of the oldest surviving cemeteries in the city.
Russian Empire
After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, Vilnius was annexed by the Russian Empire and became the capital of Vilna Governorate, a part of the Northwestern Krai. In order to allow the city to expand, between the 1799 and 1805 period, the city walls were pulled down, only the Gate of Dawn (also known as Aušros vartai, Medininkų vartai or Ostra Brama, Вострая Брама) remained.Elio Guerriero, I pellegrinaggi (in Italian), Editoriale Jaca Book, 1997, , p. 65. In 1803 Alexander I re-established the Polish-language University.Kasekamp, 2010, pp. 68-69 In 1812, the city was seized by Napoleon on his push towards Moscow. After the campaign's failure, the Grande Armée retreated to the area where 80,000 French soldiers died and were buried in the trenches they had built months earlier.
On 1 May 1832, following the fall of the November Uprising, the university was closed. In its place, two institutions were established: one for medical and surgical studies, and another for theological studies. The former was closed on 30 December 1841, while the latter was transferred to St. Petersburg in August 1842. On 29 April 1855, by decree of the Emperor, the Museum of Antiquities and the Archaeological Commission were established in Vilnius at the initiative and under the direction of Count Eustachy Tyszkiewicz. They were housed in the former university buildings.