The Stó꞉lō (), alternately written as Sto꞉lo, Stó꞉lô, or Stó꞉lõ, historically as Staulo, Stalo or Stahlo, and historically known and commonly referred to in ethnographic literature as the Fraser River Indians or Lower Fraser Salish, are a group of First Nations peoples inhabiting the Fraser Valley and lower Fraser Canyon of British Columbia, Canada, part of the loose grouping of Coast Salish nations. Stó꞉lō is the Halqemeylem word for "river", so the Stó꞉lō are the river people. The first documented reference to these people as "the Stó꞉lō" occurs in Catholic Oblate missionary records from the 1880s. Prior to this, references were primarily to individual tribal groups such as Matsqui, Ts’elxweyeqw, or Sumas.
Origins The first traces of people living in the Fraser Valley date from 4,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Stó꞉lō called this area, their traditional territory, S'ólh Téméxw. The early inhabitants of the area were highly mobile hunter-gatherers. There is archeological evidence of a settlement in the lower Fraser Canyon (called "the Milliken site" after historian August 'Gus' Milliken) and a seasonal encampment ("the Glenrose Cannery site") near the mouth of the Fraser River. Remains of this latter campsite show that in spring and early summer, the people came here to hunt land and sea mammals, such as deer, elk, and seals and, to a lesser extent, to fish for salmon, stickleback, eulachon, and sturgeon and to gather shellfish. Their lives depended on their success at harvesting the resources of the land and the rivers through fishing, foraging, and hunting.
Contemporary Stó꞉lō elders describe their connection to the land in the statement "we have always been here." They tell of their arrival in S'ólh Téméxw as either Tel Swayel ("sky-born" people) or as Tel Temexw ("earth-born" people) and through the subsequent transformations of ancestral animals and fish such as the beaver, mountain goat, and sturgeon. Xexá:ls (transformers) fixed the world ("made it right") and the people and animals in it, creating the present landscape. As Carlson notes:
The Stó꞉lō walk simultaneously through both spiritual and physical realms of this landscape, connected to the Creator through the land itself, as transformed by Xexá:ls.
History
Prehistory and archaeology
Early period There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by First Nations people dating from the early Holocene period, 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. Two archaeological sites referred to in the Origins section are well documented. Additional archaeological evidence from the early period has been found throughout the region, including sites at Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, and Fort Langley.
Middle period Many more sites exist that date from the middle Holocene period (c. 5,500–3,000 years ago). Tools found indicate considerable continuity with the early period. One striking feature of this period is the introduction of permanent house sites, showing evidence of cultural transmission from a nomadic to a more sedentary lifestyle between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago. Characteristic of this period were decorative and sculpted stone items, an increasingly complex relationship with the environment, and a more stable and increasingly complex culture. The now extinct Coast Salish woolly dog appeared for the first time during this period.
Among the oldest archaeological digs in Canada is Xá:ytem, at Hatzic, just east of present-day Mission. Initial work on a suburban housing project around a transformer stone aroused the interests of Stó꞉lō archaeologist, Gordon Mohs. The land eventually was transferred to Stó꞉lō governance for heritage purposes. The focus of the site is a large transformer stone which bears the name Xá:ytem. This has come to be used for the ancient village site that has been excavated in the surrounding field. There are two major eras found in the dig, one 3000BP and the other from 5000-9000BP . Both indicate posthole and timber-frame construction and advanced social and economic life. The site was eventually abandoned and covered by flooding and sediment during the ongoing evolution of the Fraser delta.
In the early 21st century, a group of structures known variously as the Fraser Valley Pyramids or Scowlitz Mounds at Harrison Bay, near Chehalis, are under investigation by a joint task force of the Scowlitz First Nation and archaeologists. Little is known about the mounds, which appear to be burial mounds and which contain timber structures to sustain the weight of the mound. Because they are distinct from any other structures anywhere else in the region, the people who made them may not have been forebears of the Stó꞉lō peoples.
Late period This period extends from 3,000 years ago to first contact with European people. New forms of ground stone technology, including slate knives, slate points, hand mauls, nephrite chisels, and nephrite adzes, are evidence of an increasingly specialized society evolving during this period. Social class distinctions were accompanied by changing house forms that indicated expanding households. Warfare became increasingly widespread.
Contact with Europeans Although Captains José María Narváez of Spain and George Vancouver of England explored the Georgia Strait in 1791 and 1792, respectively, they did not reach the Fraser River or Stó꞉lō territory. The first contact between the Stó꞉lō and Europeans was indirect, through the transmission of infectious disease via other Indigenous peoples.
Smallpox There are two main theories for how the smallpox virus first reached the Stó꞉lō in late 1782. The first is that the disease came up from Mexico spreading with overland travelers, the second and more likely theory is that it was brought to the coast through trade routes with Europeans. It is estimated that the epidemic killed two thirds of the Stó꞉lō population, approximately 61%, within six weeks. During the epidemic traditional responses to illness may have made the outbreak worse. One method was gathering around the sick person’s bed to sing and pray. This exposed more people to the virus. Other practices included cleansing sweats and cold morning baths which would have shocked the infected person’s body causing more harm.
Those who survived were affected with blindness and other permanent disabilities making hunting and other activities difficult. This caused many people to suffer from hunger along with the emotional damage from debilitation. Stó꞉lō culture is based on an oral tradition, and with the decimation of the community, large amounts of important cultural information were lost.
By the late 19th century, the Stó꞉lō's by then extended contact with Europeans enabled them to learn about and get vaccinated for protection against smallpox. The effects of the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic on the Stó꞉lō were limited in comparison with many other indigenous people, because they had been inoculated with the smallpox vaccine. Although deadly smallpox epidemics broke out at least once more (and possibly in 1824 and 1862), it was, however, only one of a number of serious diseases that would be brought to the area by European colonizers. Measles, mumps, tuberculosis, influenza, and venereal diseases also caused high fatalities among the Stó꞉lō population.
Simon Fraser and Fort Langley Soon after the 1782 epidemic, the Stó꞉lō encountered Europeans face to face. The first European to explore the region from overland was Simon Fraser, who travelled down the river that bears his name in 1808. The Hudson's Bay Company established trading posts at Fort Langley (in 1827) and Fort Yale (1848). Their involvement in trading with the British brought great changes to the relationships of the Stó꞉lō with each other and with the land.
Although the HBC built the posts with the fur trade in mind, trade in salmon soon took over as the primary item of exchange. Between 1830 and 1849, Fort Langley's purchases of salmon increased from 200 barrels to 2610 barrels. The Kwantlen branch of the Stó꞉lō relocated their main village to the proximity of the fort, partly to maintain primacy in trade with the company and partly for protection from competitors. The fort repelled an attack by the Euclataws of Quadra Island, helping to bring an end to slave raids on the lower Fraser by northern tribes. But, slave raiding continued for several decades after the establishment of Ft. Langley.
Douglas and Trutch
After Simon Fraser’s arrival in 1808 and the establishment of Fort Langley in 1827 the gold rush began in 1858. With the discovery of gold came the influx of over 30,000 miners with goals of striking it rich. These miners created many problems as they encroached closely to Stó꞉lō communities, resources, and homes. With the fierce competition over land many disputes arose concerning the ownership of land and the damage that was being caused by the miners. Governor James Douglas recognized these issues and tried to separate the Stó꞉lō and miners by creating separate territories for each group to occupy. This began the long history of land disputes between the Stó꞉lō and settlers. As the miners left in large numbers by 1860 the whiskey peddlers came in selling their "fire water" to the Stó꞉lō. Shortly after this more permanent immigrants arrived and began to establish farms. Because no treaties had been signed between the Stó꞉lō and the government, the settlement of this land was not in accordance with the Royal Proclamation of 1763 that stated that all land acquisition from the Aboriginals had to be done legally through a treaty process.
No treaties were ever made in BC, and although Governor Douglas planned to create them, the gold rush and subsequent immigration rush hindered this. The main goal of his plan was the assimilation of the Stó꞉lō into European culture. He hoped to have Stó꞉lō pre-empt crown land for agricultural development and have them lease out parts of the reserves to non-Aboriginal farmers to aid in assimilation. While waiting to be able to negotiate treaties, which were a very expensive process, he attempted to create large Indian reserves of at least 40 hectares per family.
Douglas also promised the Stó꞉lō fair compensation for all the land outside of the reserves being occupied by settlers. While setting up the reserves the Stó꞉lō were asked to help mark the territories themselves as it was recognized that only they would know what lands needed to be included such as berry patches, transformer sites, and burial grounds (although many spiritual sites were not revealed to ensure their secrecy). Sergeant William McColl was directed in 1864 by Douglas to create the reserves. The surveyors outlined 15,760 hectares through present day Abbotsford, Chilliwack, and Mission. This may seem like a large amount of land, but was small in comparison to the land available to settlers.
Soon after the survey was completed Douglas retired and McColl died. Joseph Trutch, the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, was placed in charge of the reserves. He felt that the Stó꞉lō did not need most of the land promised to them by Douglas and McColl. Trutch believed that if the land was not being used for agrarian purposes it was not required. He reduced the reserves by 91% in 1867, siding with the settlers who had begun to build homes and farms in the area. Trutch also took away many of the rights that Douglas had given to the Stó꞉lō. They no longer were allowed to participate in government or able to pre-empt or purchase land outside of the reserves. In the years following these events the federal and provincial governments have paid very little attention to the problems that First Nations people have been experiencing in British Columbia. In 1990 British Columbia acknowledged that Aboriginal rights to land and resources needed to be extinguished by treaty as stated in the 1763 Royal Proclamation. They created the BC Treaty Commission to help deal with these issues.
St. Mary's Residential School