The Imperial Brazilian Army () was the name given to the land force of the Empire of Brazil. The Brazilian Army was formed after the independence of the country from Portugal in 1822 and reformed in 1889, after the republican coup d'état that created the First Brazilian Republic, a dictatorship headed by the army.
Formation During the Independence process, the Imperial Brazilian Army was initially composed of Brazilians, Portuguese, and foreign mercenaries. Trained in guerrilla warfare, most of its commanders were mercenaries and Portuguese officers loyal to Pedro I.Hendrik, 2001. Introduction & Chapter 5. In 1822 and 1823, the Imperial Army was able to defeat the Portuguese resistance, especially in the north of the country and in Cisplatina, also preventing the fragmentation of the newly proclaimed Brazilian Empire after its independence war.Donato, 1996. Pages 105–106.
After the Independence War the Army, supported by the National Guard, destroyed separatist movements in the early years after independence, enforcing the central authority of the empire during the regency period. It repressed a host of popular movements for political autonomy or against slavery and the large landowners' power across Brazil.Faoro, 1957. Chapters VIII & IX
During the 1850s and early 1860s, the Army, along with the Navy, entered in action against Argentine and Uruguayan forces, which were opposed to the Brazilian empire's interests. The Brazilian success with such "Gun Diplomacy" eventually led to a shock of interests with another country with similar aspirations, Paraguay, in December 1864.
In November 1889, after a long attrition with the monarchical regime deepened by the abolition of slavery, the army led a coup d'état that resulted in the end of the empire and the founding of a republic. The implementation of the first Brazilian military dictatorship (that ended in 1894), was followed by a severe economic crisis that deepened into an institutional one with Congress and the Navy, which degenerated into a civil war in the southern region.Smallman, 2002. Chapter 1 "Officers versus Politicians, 1889–1930".
Command
Under Articles 102 and 148 of the Constitution, the Brazilian Armed Forces were subordinate to the monarch as commander-in-chief.See Articles 102 and 148 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1824 The commander-in-chief was aided by the Ministry of War. During the 67 years of the monarchy's existence there were 76 ministers of war—who were, with few exceptions, civilians. The prime minister exercised ultimate oversight in practice.Carvalho (2007), p. 193Lyra, p. 84
The model chosen was the British parliamentary or Anglo-American system, in which "the country's Armed Forces observed unrestricted obedience to the civilian government while maintaining distance from political decisions and decisions referring to borders' security".Pedrosa, p. 289
Structure The National Army, or Imperial Army during the monarchy, was divided into two branches: the 1st Line, which was the Army itself; and the 2nd Line, which was formed by the Militias and Orderlies inherited from the colonial times. The military was organized along similar lines to the British and American armed forces of the time, in which a small standing army could quickly augment its strength during emergencies from a reserve militia force (in Brazil, the National Guard). By 1824 the Army of the 1st Line included 24,000 men,Pedrosa, p. 229 who were disciplined, trained and equipped just as well as European equivalents.Nabuco, p. 463 At the end of the war of Independence, the Brazilian Armed Forces were already well organized and equipped.Vainfas, p. 548 This occurred mainly because the Emperor heavily supported the Army.Nabuco, p. 58
Military education Year Army (1st Line) Army (2nd Line) 1824 24,000 Unknown 1827 27,242 95,000 1832 6,000 Unknown 1838 18,000 Unknown 1851 37,000 Unknown 1864 18,000 440,000 1869 82,271 Unknown 1875 17,000Costa, p. 290 Unknown 1883 13,000 Unknown 1889 14,300 Unknown Army officers' training was completed in the Imperial Military Academy,Holanda, p. 238 although it was not obligatory for personnel to study there to advance in the profession.Souza, p. 110 Personnel from the infantry and cavalry branches only needed to study the disciplines of the 1st year (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and technical drawing) and 5th year (tactical, strategy, camping, fortification in campaign, terrain reconnaissance and chemistry). Engineers and artillerymen were obliged to study the complete course, which resulted in their branches being considered the most prestigious. However, if they preferred, infantrymen and cavalrymen were allowed to study the disciplines of the 2nd year (algebra, geometry, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, descriptive geometry and technical drawing); 3rd year (mechanics, ballistics and technical drawing); 4th year (spherical trigonometry, physics, astronomy, geodesy, geography and technical drawing); 6th year (regular and irregular fortification, attacking and defending strongholds, civil architecture, roads, ports, canals, mineralogy and technical drawing); and 7th year (artillery, mines and natural history).Souza, p. 113
In 1845 the Military College (originally known as the Military Academy) was divided into two-halves: one half retained the name "Military College" and the other half became the Central College. A new reform (Decree nº 585) on 6 September 1850, considerably improved the quality of the officers of the Imperial Army.Holanda, p. 245Pedrosa, p. 207 From then on, progression in a soldier's military career would occur through antiquity, merit and academic resume, beyond a clear preference for the personnel who completed the Military College over the ones who did not.Vainfas, p. 549 On 20 September 1851, the conservative cabinet created a branch of the Military College in Porto Alegre. The Porto Alegre college location provided courses in infantry and cavalry, including disciplines taken from the 1st and 5th years of study. The National Guard was reorganized in the same month and became subordinate directly to the Minister of Justice, instead of to the locally elected Judges of Peace.Vainfas, p. 320In 1874 the Polytechnical College of Rio de Janeiro was created from the Military School. The new college focused on the provision of civil engineering courses. For the 1873–74 fiscal year, the Government allocated about 27 percent of the budget for the Army and the Navy.Holanda, p. 255
Reserve system
There was continuity in the recruitment of soldiers between the beginning of the Republic, the Empire of Brazil, the colony and Portugal, although the Portuguese model in the 17th and 18th centuries, typical of the European Old Regime, found different conditions in Portuguese America. The distinction between regular or first-line troops and the milícias and ordenanças was also a Portuguese heritage. These were replaced in the Empire of Brazil by the National Guard, whose recruitment (called "enlistment") was complementary and antagonistic, absorbing personnel of a higher social level. National guardsmen were exempt from recruitment into the Army and Navy, and the institution was therefore one of the forms of evasion. National guardsmen were considered citizens and qualified, and their service a duty to the country, very different from first-line troops.
Soldiers in 19th century Brazil were recruited voluntarily or by force. Recruitment focused on "vagrants, ex-slaves, orphans, criminals, migrants, unskilled workers and the unemployed". Military service was considered degrading by the free poor population. Recruitment, called "blood tax" at the time, was violent and followed by a life of punishment and low pay. It managed to attract few recruits, as it was carried out by a weak state (police, civil service and civil registry) in a resistant population. The Paraguayan War strained the system and was time-consuming in part due to inefficient mobilization. In Europe, a reference for the Brazilian elite, the period after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was marked by industrialization, states with greater control over their populations and conscript armies, which, after 1–3 years of service, followed into a growing reserve. Brazil was very far from this model.
Wars and rebellions
Cisplatine War
The Empire declared war against the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina) in 1825 because that nation was aiding the secessionist revolt of the Brazilian Cisplatina province. The Argentines and the Cisplatine secessionist troops made use of guerrilla tactics that prevented the much larger Brazilian Army (1st Line with 27,242 men and 2nd Line with 95,000) from delivering an overwhelming blow against its enemies. By the end of the conflict more than 8,000 Brazilians had diedLustosa, p. 277 and the esteem associated with a career in the military declined.Nabuco, p. 466 The resulting withdraw led to the independence of Cisplatina, which became Uruguay, and was the only war not won by Brazil in its independent history. In the aftermath, the military blamed the Emperor for not being able to convince the Parliament to allow more financial aid to purchase equipment, munitions and provisions, while the liberals, on the other hand, considered the monarch responsible for the high costs of the conflict.Holanda, p. 243
Regency period
Pedro I's abdication resulted in the reduction of the size of the Army contingent.Vainfas, p. 318 The liberals were against the Army for ideological and economic reasons. Their objective was to prevent any possibility of return to Brazil by Pedro I, so they weakened one of the institutions most connected to the former Emperor.Souza, p. 209 Some battalions were dissolved while others were transferred to distant provinces. Most of the soldiers were discharged; enlistment was suspended and the promotion of any officer was forbidden.Souza, p. 205 On 30 August 1831, the liberal regency reduced the Army to fewer than 10,000 men. Later reductions left only 6,000 soldiers.Holanda, p. 244 The battalions formed by mercenaries were also disbanded.
With the intention of assisting the smaller Army, the Government created the National Guard on 18 August 1831.Pedrosa, p. 225 The new institution would substitute for the old Militias and Orderlies that were extinguished at the same time.Souza, p. 208 The Guard did not have permanent troops nor barracks for lodging troops. In war times the National Guard was incorporated into the Army of 1st Line and it was, for all effects, a reserve force of the Imperial Army.Pedrosa, p. 227
The results of the Liberal's policy towards the Army were soon felt. The Government was incapable of fighting the rebellions that occurred in the country during the second half of the 1830s. The election of the conservative Pedro de Araújo Lima for the office of regent in 1837 completely changed the situation. The Conservative Party restored the Army, reorganized and reequipped its ranks, and increased its size to 18,000 men. The Imperial Army achieved several victories over the provincial revolts, including: Cabanagem, Sabinada, Ragamuffin War, among others. At the beginning of the 1840s a new reorganization of the Army gave it more cohesion and made it more capable.
Platine Wars
In 1851 the Imperial Army was composed of more than 37,000 men which 20,000 participated in the Platine War against the Argentine Confederation which opposed to Brazilian Empire's interests. The war ended in 1852 with the Brazilian victory at the Battle of Caseros, for some time establishing Brazilian hegemony over South America. The war ushered a period of economic and political stability in the Empire.Doratioto (2002), p. 28