Racial segregation of churches in the United States is a pattern of Christian churches maintaining segregated congregations based on race.
Racially segregated churches have existed within the United States since before it became a country, and they lasted through the post-slavery era and well into the modern age.
There are many reasons for the history and the continued prevalence of racial segregation in U.S. churches, including widespread and systemic racism as well as geographic and denominational differences across branches of various religions. This segregation affects society both on an individual level and as a whole, consequently causing increased racism and segregation outside of the church as well. However, segregated black churches have also become a positive space for community issues like civil rights, in addition to offering a respite for black individuals from the racism they face in integrated society.
History
Pre-Civil War era Before the American Civil War, many churches in both the Northern and Southern United States were segregated, both socially and legally although the First Great Awakening did result in the conversion of many slaves into mixed congregations. The first black church was founded in 1773 in South Carolina. In the 19th century, both the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church were founded by African Americans, and they were led by African Americans in addition to exercising control over their own properties.
Northern states By the 1830s, many Northern white Christians had become abolitionists. Many of them felt that slavery contradicted the ideals that they had fought for in the American Revolutionary War. However, while many Northern Christians began to speak out against slavery, they did not speak out against racism for fear of "miscegenation", since they felt that interracial relationships were unchristian. Due to this fear, church leaders frequently called for the establishment of segregated congregations and resisted initiating black people into the church leadership or designating them as elders.
In addition to the segregation of black people, the spread of Christianity in the Northern States also affected Native Americans in seventeenth-century New England, referred to as Praying Indians. Puritans viewed Praying Indians as inferior and forced them to abandon their culture in favor of the former's concept of civilization. Ministers like John Eliot defended this technique by stating that Native Americans should adopt the mannerisms and customs of English people before earning the privilege of becoming Christian. According to historian Neal Salisbury, John Eliot prompted Native Americans' rapid conversion to Christianity by isolating the Praying Indians into fourteen "praying towns" from the mid-to-late seventeenth century, hence the name. One of Eliot's most successful towns was Natick, Massachusetts, where the missionary considered the Native Americans' rapid conversion to be a transformational change in favor of civilization. These towns were so effective that by 1675, almost one-fourth of the Native Americans had converted to Christianity, though contrary to popular belief, some opted to do so at their own will.
According to James F. Cooper Jr., Associate Professor of History at Oklahoma State University, the Puritans believed that their success in New England depended on "their ability to establish and maintain this scripturally based system of worship". This explains the Puritans' haste in their mission to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Puritans applied church doctrines such as popular consent to their government, although since non-Puritans only qualified as "cultural inferiors", they were only expected to "subject themselves" to the Puritans' supposedly superior form of government.
Southern states In the South, church leaders and Christians began to defend slavery by using the Bible and church doctrine. This involved making use of biblical, charitable, evangelistic, social, and political rationalizations, such as the fact that Biblical figures owned slaves and the argument that slavery allowed African Americans to become Christians. Another prominent reason which was used to justify slavery was the belief that Christians should focus on evangelism, stay out of politics, and follow the law. By 1860, one year before the start of the American Civil War, 11% of African Americans were members of Christian churches.
In the 18th century, many white Protestants did not believe that African Americans were fully human, and as a result, they did not believe that African Americans had souls. When this view changed, white Christians began to try to convert slaves to Christianity, although slave owners resisted their conversion because they were afraid of slave revolts. In trying to convert slaves to Christianity, Christian leaders encouraged slavery, as well as any means of punishment that was used against slaves who revolted. Some Christian leaders even said that slavery was beneficial in that it allowed, or oftentimes forced, slaves to become Christians.
Reconstruction era After the American Civil War and the emancipation of slaves in the United States, many Northern African American religious groups created missionary church plants in the South, to connect newly freed African Americans with the African-American denominations of the North. By 1870, attendance at the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church had grown significantly.
In urban areas after the 1870s, there was a large push towards multi-denominational evangelism with both white and African American congregations. However, while white evangelicals focused on textual interpretation and history, African American groups focused on social injustices and racism.
It was especially during this time that African Americans began forming their own churches, in part because of the unequal treatment they were facing in integrated churches in both the North and the South. Christian theology was often used to justify this split, with the implication that it was God's plan to have people separated by race.
Jim Crow era A survey of African American churchgoers which was conducted in 1968 revealed that 94% of African Americans were members of predominantly African American congregations. Of the other 6% who were members of integrated denominations, 99% went to segregated churches. During that time, African American churches did not focus on critiquing or challenging segregation and racism, instead, they focused on the promise of a better life after death.
Civil Rights era During the Civil Rights Movement, African American churchgoers used their presence in church to unite people on civil rights issues. This was significantly more successful in the South than in the North, as Southern problems of legal segregation were easier to identify and fix in comparison to problems in the North such as emerging ghettos.
While at the beginning of the Civil Rights Era there was some push from white Christians to integrate churches, after there was "a white backlash against black progress," the push ended as white Americans were less inclined to push for social segregation. However, many historians have said that religion was an important motivator for people to be in favor of civil rights, because they believed that racism was sinful or unchristian. Sermons influenced the views of congregation members on segregation, which, during this time period, shifted largely from supporting segregation to opposing it. This may have varied widely by region, as Southern pastors were much more racist than their Northern counterparts. Additionally, many evangelical Christians believed that integration and equality may be impossible, as they believed that the world was descending into chaos as a precursor to "the second coming," when Jesus would return to the Earth as described in the Book of Revelation.
During this era, primarily black churches were an important place for social organizing. African-American church members and leaders played a large role in the Civil Rights Movement, which also gave the movement distinct religious undertones. Appealing to the public using religious reasoning and doctrine was incredibly common.
Variations among denominations
Nontraditional denominations Black Hebrew Israelites The faith of Black Hebrew Israelites is rooted in Judaism. Members believe that they are descendants of the 12 Tribes of Israel. Within the religion, there are some groups that express extremist ideologies. These groups believe that only blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans will be allowed into heaven and that other Jewish groups are not legitimate.
Mormonism
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest denomination within Mormonism and has a long history of racial exclusion. According to Cassandra L. Clark, one reason why polygamy was a part of the Mormon culture was to promote the growth of the white race. From the mid-1800s until 1978, the LDS Church prevented most men of black African descent from being ordained to the church's lay priesthood, barred black men and women from participating in the ordinances of its temples and opposed interracial marriage. Since black men of African descent could not receive the priesthood, they were excluded from holding leadership roles and performing these rituals.
During the first century of its existence, the LDS Church discouraged social interaction with blacks and encouraged racial segregation. Joseph Smith, who is considered a prophet in the LDS Church, supported segregation, stating, "I would confine them [black people] by strict law to their own species". Other LDS Church leaders, such as David O. McKay, J. Reuben Clark, Henry D. Moyle, Ezra Taft Benson, Joseph Fielding Smith, Harold B. Lee, and Mark E. Petersen were leading proponents of segregation. The First Presidency under George Albert Smith sent a letter on May 5, 1947, stating that "social intercourse between the Whites and the Negroes should certainly not be encouraged because of leading to intermarriage, which the Lord has forbidden." In 1954, apostle Mark E. Petersen taught that segregation was inspired by God, arguing that "what God hath separated, let not man bring together again". The church also advocated for segregation laws and enforced segregation in its facilities. Blacks were prohibited from performing in the Salt Lake Tabernacle.Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, September 29, 1965, pp. 1183–86.
During the years, different black families were either told by church leadership not to attend church or chose not to attend church after white members complained. The church began considering segregated congregations, and sent missionaries to southern United States to establish segregated congregations.
Despite the change in 1978, the LDS Church still has a white majority. According to the Pew Research Center, 85% of Mormons are white, 8% are Latino, and less than 1% are black.
Protestantism In 2014, Protestants made up over 46 percent of the U.S. population. Racial minorities made up 24 percent of evangelical Protestants and 14 percent of mainline Protestants. Major branches of Protestantism include, but are not limited to, Calvinists, Baptists, Methodists, and Pentecostals.
Calvinism