A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHV) is a type of hybrid electric vehicle equipped with a battery that can be recharged via a power cable to an external electric power source, in addition to charging internally by its on-board internal combustion engine–powered generator. While PHEVs are predominantly passenger cars, there are also plug-in hybrid variants of sports cars, commercial vehicles, vans, utility trucks, buses, trains, motorcycles, mopeds, military vehicles and boats.
Similar to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrids can use centralized generators of renewable energy (e.g., solar, wind or hydroelectric) to be largely emission-free, or a fossil plant in which case they displace greenhouse gas emissions from the car tailpipe exhaust to the power station. As opposed to conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs generally have a larger battery pack that can be recharged (theoretically) from anywhere with access to the electrical grid, offering enhanced energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness when compared to relying solely on the on-board generator. Additionally, PHEVs can support longer and more frequent all-electric range driving, and their electric motors often have higher power output and torque, are more responsive during acceleration, and, overall, have lower operating costs. Although a PHEV's battery pack is smaller than that of all-electric vehicles of the same weight, as it must accommodate its combustion engine and hybrid drivetrain, it provides the added flexibility of reverting to the use of its gasoline/diesel engine if the battery charge is depleted. This feature helps alleviate range anxiety, particularly in areas lacking sufficient charging infrastructure.
Mass-produced PHEVs have been available to the public in China and the United States since 2012, with the introduction of the Toyota Prius PHV, which was the best selling PHV until it was surpassed by the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV. By 2021, BYD Auto emerged as the largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world. , BYD plug-in hybrid cumulative sales surpassed 3.6 million units. The BYD Song DM line of SUVs contributed over 1.05 million units.
China currently has the largest stock of PHEVs in the world, with cumulative sales of 9.31 million units (including EREV) through December 2024. In 2024, over 76% of global PHEV sales was contributed by the Chinese market. In addition, the five largest producers of PHEVs globally are Chinese manufacturers, which are BYD, Geely, Chery, Li Auto, and Changan.
History
Invention and early interest The Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid, produced as early as 1899, was the first hybrid electric car. See year 1898. Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. The term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. The term "plug-in hybrid electric vehicle" was coined by UC Davis Professor Andrew Frank, who has been called the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid". See Chapter 4
The July 1969 issue of Popular Science featured an article on the General Motors XP-883 plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six lead–acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive. The car can be plugged into a standard North American 120-volt AC outlet to recharge.
Revival of interest
In 2003, Renault began selling the Elect'road, a plug-in series-hybrid version of its popular Kangoo, in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% range in about 4 hours. After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.
With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2002, interest in plug-in hybrids increased.Curtis D. Anderson, Judy Anderson, Electric and Hybrid Cars: A History, 2d ed. McFarland, 2010, , page 156 Some plug-in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids; for example, the 2004 CalCars conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to using only electric power.
In 2006, both Toyota and General Motors announced plans for plug-in hybrids.General Motors (November 29, 2006) "GM Announces Intention to Produce Plug-in Hybrid SUV" . Retrieved January 8, 2009. GM's Saturn Vue project was canceled, but the Toyota plug-in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007.Toyota Motor Corporation (July 25, 2007) "Japan Certifies Toyota Plug-in Hybrid for Public-road Tests" JCN Newswire. Retrieved July 25, 2007.
In 2007, Quantum Technologies and Fisker Coachbuild, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive. Fisker intended to build a US$80,000 luxury PHEV with of electric range, the Fisker Karma, initially scheduled for late 2009.Shirouzu, N., and Buckman, R. (January 14, 2008) "Electric-Car Firms Get Star Investors," Wall Street Journal
In 2007, Aptera Motors announced their Typ-1 two seater. That company folded in December 2011.
In 2007, Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced it would introduce a production PHEV sedan with of electric range in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit in January 2008. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses lithium iron phosphate (LFP)-based batteries instead of lithium-ion batteries and can be recharged to 70% capacity in 10 minutes.Edmunds (October 15, 2007) "Detroit Show Preview: BYD's New Plug-in Hybrid on Sale Next Year" Edmunds Inside Line. Retrieved October 26, 2007.
In 2007, Ford delivered the first Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid of a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs to Southern California Edison. As part of this demonstration program, Ford also developed the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV, which was delivered in June 2008. This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada, and during the first two years since the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles. In August 2009, Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology. Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.
On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,Plug-in car production race is on (Chicago Tribune) but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.Ohnsman, A. (August 28, 2008) "Toyota Plans Electric Car, Earlier Plug-In Prius Test" Bloomberg. Retrieved December 2008.
On March 27, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) modified its regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids during 2012 through 2014."Preliminary Summary of Air Resources Board Action (3/27/08) – Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program" arb.ca.gov This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 pure zero-emissions vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.California Air Resources Board (March 27, 2008) "ARB passes new ZEV amendment – Measure could produce 65,000 cleaner vehicles by 2012" (government agency release) On June 26, Volkswagen announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the Volkswagen Golf compact car. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.Thompson (June 26, 2008) "VW starts testing electric cars, sees launching them by 2010" (Forbes) accessed December 2009 In September, Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs. On September 23, Chrysler announced that they had prototyped a plug-in Jeep Wrangler and a Chrysler Town and Country minivan, both PHEV with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production.
On October 3, the U.S. enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. The legislation provided tax credits for the purchase of plug-in electric vehicles of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours.Schoenberger, R. (October 2, 2008) "Bailout bill includes tax breaks for buyers of plug-in hybrid vehicles," Cleveland Plain DealerVijayenthiran, V. (October 3, 2008) "Bush signs $7,500 plug-in hybrid tax credit bill into law," MotorAuthority.com The federal tax credits were extended and modified by the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, but now the battery capacity must be over 5 kWh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.
Series production
On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto began selling the BYD F3DM in China, becoming the first production plug-in hybrid to be sold worldwide, though it was initially available only to corporate and government customers.Crippen, A. (December 15, 2008) "Warren Buffett's Electric Car Hits the Chinese Market, But Rollout Delayed For U.S. & Europe" CNBC. Retrieved December 2008.Balfour, F. (December 15, 2008) "China's First Plug-In Hybrid Car Rolls Out" Business Week. Retrieved December 2008. Sales to the general public began in Shenzhen in March 2010, but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.
Toyota tested 600 pre-production Prius Plug-ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010. Volvo Cars built two demonstration versions of Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrids in 2009 but did not proceed with production. The V60 plug-in hybrid was released in 2011 and was available for sale.
In October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar, a plug-in series hybrid concept car designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol, or methanol as well as regular gasoline.
GM launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and retail deliveries began in December 2010. Its sibling, the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was launched in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012. GM calls its Chevrolet Volt series plug-in hybrid an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle".
The first deliveries of the Fisker Karma took place in July 2011, and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012, followed by the United States in February 2012. Deliveries of the Prius PHV in Europe began in late June 2012. The Ford C-Max Energi was released in the U.S. in October 2012, the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid in Sweden by late 2012.
The Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid was released in selected U.S. markets in January 2013, and the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV in Japan in January 2013, becoming the first SUV plug-in hybrid in the market. Deliveries of the Ford Fusion Energi began in February 2013. BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales, and its successor, the BYD Qin, began sales in December 2013.
Deliveries to retail customers of the limited edition McLaren P1 supercar began in the UK in October 2013, and the Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid began deliveries in the U.S. in November 2013. The first retail deliveries of the Cadillac ELR took place in the U.S. in December 2013. The BMW i8 and the limited edition Volkswagen XL1 were released to retail customers in Germany in June 2014. The Porsche 918 Spyder was also released in Europe and the U.S. in 2014. The first units of the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron and Volkswagen Golf GTE were registered in Germany in August 2014.