The Astronomica (), also known as Astronomicon, is a Latin didactic poem about celestial phenomena, written in hexameters and divided into five books. The Astronomica was written by a Roman poet whose name was likely Marcus Manilius; little is known of Manilius, and although there is evidence that the Astronomica was probably read by many other Roman writers, no surviving works explicitly quote him.
The earliest work on astrology that is extensive, comprehensible, and mostly intact, the Astronomica describes celestial phenomena, and, in particular, the zodiac and astrology. The poemwhich seems to have been inspired by Lucretius's poem De rerum naturaespouses a Stoic, deterministic understanding of a universe overseen by a god and governed by reason. The fifth book contains a lacuna, which has led to debate about the original size of the poem; some scholars have argued that whole books have been lost over the years, whereas others believe only a small section of the work is missing.
The poem was rediscovered 14161417 by the Italian humanist and scholar Poggio Bracciolini, who had a copy made from which the modern text derives. Since its rediscovery, the Astronomica has been read, commented upon, and edited by a number of scholars, most notably Joseph Justus Scaliger, Richard Bentley, and A. E. Housman. The poem was never as popular as other classical Latin poems and was neglected for centuries after its rediscovery. This started to change during the early 20th century when Housman published his critically acclaimed edition of the poem in five books (190330). Housman's work was followed by G. P. Goold's lauded English translation in 1977. Today, scholars consider the Astronomica to be highly technical, complicated, and occasionally contradictory. At the same time, many have praised Manilius's ability to translate heady astronomical concepts and complex mathematical computations into poetry.
Authorship and date
Because no contemporary Roman sources mention his name, the exact identity of the Astronomicas author is a tantalizing question, but his name was probably Marcus Manilius.Volk (2009), p. 1. This uncertainty has led to Marcus Manilius being confused over the years with Manilius Antiochus (fl.c.100BC, mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia); Flavius Manlius Theodorus (fl.c.AD376409, a consul in AD399) and Boëthius (the sixth-century Roman senator and author of De consolatione philosophiae, whose full name was Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius).Volk (2009), pp. 2, 4. Although the poem suggests that the writer was a citizen and resident of Rome, some have contended that Manilius was a non-Roman; according to Katharina Volk, a Latinist who specializes in Manilius, this belief is generally based on either "the poet's supposedly inferior Latinity" or "the wish to see Manilius as the member of a Greek intellectual milieu at Rome".Volk (2009), p. 162. The 19th-century classicist Fridericus Jacobs and the 19th- and 20th-century historian Paul Monceaux have argued that he was an African, based largely on his writing style, which they say resembles that of African authors.Chisholm (1911), pp. 58081.Brock (1911), p. 180. Volk counters this view, arguing that Manilius writes "from ... a conventional Roman perspective" and "takes recourse to Roman history to illustrate the astrological facts he discusses".Volk (2009), pp. 16263.
The work's date has been debated. The only historical event to which there is a clear reference is the Battle of the Teutoburg Foresta decisive loss for Rome that forced the empire to withdraw from Magna Germaniain AD9.Volk (2009), p. 138. In considering the poem's date, scholars have proposed three hypotheses: that it was written entirely under Augustus (who ruled from 27 BC until AD 14), under the reigns of both Augustus and Tiberius (who ruled from AD 1437), or entirely under Tiberius. The first conjecture was favored primarily from the Renaissance until the 19th century, when Karl Lachmann argued that references to the emperor in the poem made more sense if they were referring to Tiberius. At the turn of the 20th century, scholars such as A. E. Housman began favoring the idea that the first two books were written under Augustus, the last two under Tiberius, and that the third was "undatable".Volk (2009), pp. 13839. This debate has not been settled,Volk (2009), p. 139. although Volk has argued that the poem should be dated to c. AD 1020.
Contents
According to Volk, Manilius's Astronomica is the earliest work on astrology that is extensive, comprehensible, and mostly extant. Volk wrote that since he dedicates the poem to stellar phenomena, it is "indicative of the great fascination ... that the stars held for the Romans of Manilius' period".Volk (2011), p. 6.
Summary
The Astronomica, which is written in hexameters, opens with Manilius contending that he is the "first to sing of astrology". He also claims that the god Mercury engendered his interest in celestial bodies.Goold (1997) , p. xvii.
In the first book he ponders the origin of the universe, considering the theories of Xenophanes, Hesiod, Leucippus, Heraclitus, Thales, and Empedocles before arguing that the universe was created from the four elements and is governed by a divine spirit.Manilius, Astronomica, 1.118254.Goold (1997) , pp. xviii, xx. According to Manilius, the universe is composed of two spheres: one (the Earth) is solid and the other (the "sphere of stars", often called the firmament) is hollow. The constellations are fixed in the firmament; the Earth is stationary and the firmament revolves around it, explaining the movements of the stars. The planets, the Moon, and the Sun also revolve around the Earth in the vast space between its surface and the edge of the firmament.Volk (2009), p. 25. Because the Earth is in the center of the universe, it is equidistant from the firmament and is thus not compelled to "fall" in any specific direction.Volk (2009), p. 31. According to Manilius, the universe is ruled by a god (conspirat deus) and is governed by reason (ratione gubernat).Manilius, Astronomica, 1.251. Manilius next discusses the constellations and starsManilius, Astronomica, 1.255560. and the celestial circles.Manilius, Astronomica, 1.561804. In this section, the poet spends considerable time contemplating the Milky Way band,Manilius, Astronomica, 1.684804. which, after exploring several hypotheses as to its existence, he concludes is likely to be the celestial abode for dead heroes.Volk (2009), p. 266.Manilius & Goold (1997) , p. 3. The first book ends with an exploration of comets, which Manilius sees as harbingers of calamity or great disaster.Heilen (2011), p. 282.Volk (2009), pp. 26667.
Books two and three deal mainly with the finer details of the zodiac.Volk (2014), p. 95. Book two opens with a preface in which Manilius presents a brief history of hexameter poetry, singling out Homer and Hesiod. The purpose, Volk argues, is to emphasize the uniqueness of his poem in comparison to others rather than to insert himself into this poetic tradition. According to Manilius, "Every path that leads to Helicon has been trodden" (omnis ad accessus Heliconos semita trita est; all other topics have been covered) and he must find "untouched meadows and water" (integra ... prata ... undamque) for his poetry: astrology.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.50, 2.5354.Volk (2010), pp. 18788. Manilius ends the book's preface by saying "that the divine cosmos is voluntarily revealing itself both to mankind as a whole and to the poet in particular", and that he is set apart from the crowd because his poetic mission has been sanctioned by fate.Volk (2003), p. 628.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.60149. The poet then begins his explanation of the first astrologically significant circle: the zodiac itself. He first considers the signs of the zodiac (viz. Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces),Manilius, Astronomica, 2.150269. before discussing the aspects and relationships between the signs and other objects.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.270692. In this section, the poet briefly discusses the zodiac signs, the Olympian gods who serve as their protectors, and the relationship between the signs and the parts of the human body.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.43365. The Astronomica then considers dodecatemoriaManilius, Astronomica, 2.693749.Goold (1997) , pp. xxxviiiliv. before he deviates from the zodiac and begins to discuss the didactic method.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.75087. The book concludes with a consideration of the second astrologically significant circle, that of the fixed circle of the observer.Volk (2009), pp. 26768.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.788970. The last few lines are dedicated to an overview of the dodecatropos.Manilius, Astronomica, 2.856970.
The third book – which focuses mainly on "determin[ing] the degree of the ecliptic which is rising about the horizon at the moment" of a person's birth – opens with Manilius's reiteration that his work is original.Goold (1997) , p. lxii. Because his topic is complex and difficult, the poet tells his audience they can "expect truth but not beauty". He then discusses the third astrologically significant circle, the lots,Manilius, Astronomica, 3.43202. which are points on a birth chart that carry special significance. Subsequent verses explain how to calculate the ascendant, the horoscope,Manilius, Astronomica, 3.203509. and chronocrators;Manilius, Astronomica, 3.51059. and how to determine the projected length of one's life.Manilius, Astronomica, 3.560617. The third book concludes with a discussion about the tropic signs,Volk (2009), p. 268.Manilius, Astronomica, 3.61882. which, while not particularly pertinent to the astrological content of the book, allows Manilius to end the book on a "poetic note". Most scholars consider the third book to be highly technical; according to Goold it "is the least poetical of the five, exemplifying for the most part Manilius's skill in rendering numbers and arithmetical calculations in hexameters".Manilius & Goold (1997) , p. 161. A similar but less favorable sentiment is expressed by Green, who writes that in this book, "the disjuncture between instruction and medium is most obviously felt [because] complex mathematical calculations are confined to hexameter and obscured behind poetic periphrasis".Green (2014), p. 57.
Books four and five are largely about "the effects of particular celestial phenomena on the native". Book four covers many topics that originated in Egypt, leading Goold to write that Manilius based his work on an Egyptian source.Goold (1997) , p. lxxxiv. Much of the first portion of this book deals with decansManilius, Astronomica, 4.294386. and the partes damnandae,Manilius, Astronomica, 4.308501. both of which allow Manilius another chance to convert mathematical and astrological tables into verse.Manilius & Goold (1997) , p. 221. A short description of the rising of individual zodiacal degrees is followed by a more comprehensive survey of zodiacal geography.Manilius, Astronomica, 4.502817. Near the end of the book, Manilius writes about the ecliptic signs.Manilius, Astronomica, 4.81865. The book is punctuated at lines 4.387407 and 4.866935 by "exhortation[s] of the frustrated student", where complaints that astrology is difficult and nature is hidden are countered by statements that "the object of study is nothing less than (union with) god" and "the universe (microcosm) wishes to reveal itself to man".Volk (2009), p. 269.