Indian commercial development is defined as the economic evolution of Native American tribes from hunter-gatherer based societies into fur-trade-based industries. From the early 1500s to the 1800s, intertribal and European relationships evolved in response to the growth of English settlements into the United States.
The commercial relationship of each tribe was dependent upon its geographic resources and the cultural region it was a part of. Native American trade previous to European contact was limited to neighboring tribes as a method to emphasize tribal and social boundaries.Hickerson 1973, p 18 The goods traded depended upon each tribes' specialization, but each tribe was non dependent upon external trade for survival.Hickerson 1973, p 20 The development of trade between European traders and native tribes led to native tribes to specialize in fur trade in exchange for European goods.
Economic contact between Native Americans and English settlers began in the 16th century and lasted until the 19th century. Early relationship between the English and local tribes were dependent upon the animal furs and pelts. Initial English settlement such as Jamestown and Plymouth depended on local tribes for a large portion of their livelihood.Vaughan 1965, p 24 As settlements became colonies, conflict steadily rose between both parties as English colonists occupied more lands and territories.
With the notable population growth of English colonies, dependence upon tribal goods dissipated. Indian tribes of the North Eastern woodlands became increasingly dependent upon colonial goods. By the time of the foundation of the United States, the importance of tribal commerce was in decline.
The steady expansion of the United States led to the disenfranchisement of Native Americans. Commercially, goods provided by Native Americans, such as furs, had lost significance in the American economy. Political agendas were created that led to the steady expulsion of Native American tribes which confined them to reservations in the West.
By the 1800s, Native American commercial power had all but diminished due to the subjugation of the United States government. Today, Native Americans satisfy commercial demand concerning gaming casinos and provided cultural goods.
Pre-English settlement From the outset of the sixteenth century, Native American societies are characterized as hunter-gatherer societies and horticulturalist societies. This era is classified as the Pre-Columbian Era. The specialization of each tribe was dependent upon the geographic factors of their territory. (E.g. North eastern tribes such as the Iroquois engaged in seasonal migration to hunt for moose and shellfish,) Previous to any European contact, many tribes focused their economies on the exploitation of furs. The first trade between finished European goods for Indian furs began in 1641 with French Jesuit priests in Great Lake region. This initial contact lead to the development of the fur trade, specifically beaver pelts, which paved the way for French and later English colonization.
Although European migration had a significant impact upon the economic development, it also impacted the social structure of tribes. The incoming migration led to the formation of federations and new tribes.
Native American pre-colonization commerce Native American commerce was largely dependent upon the geography surrounding each of the tribes. These geographic areas came to find loose cultural boundaries which defined the economic structure of many tribes. General information for each region can be found here: North Eastern Woodlands Southeastern Woodlands Great Plains Great Basin Northwest Plateau Northwest Coast California Southwest The exact nature of the trade pre-European contact is not known, but general inferences may be drawn. Trade was extensive between tribal communities since luxury goods such as copper, shells, and stone moved great distances. Trade of useful commodities such as perishable goods was limited to local neighboring tribes.
Trade between Native Americans was not directed towards profits. Trade had the function of providing communities with useful goods that they lacked, and served to reinforce social and territorial boundaries. Thus, goods processed as surplus in one community to another. An example of this is when the Huron's would trade surplus farm produce to the neighboring Algonkians.
The earliest trade relations with incoming European trades consisted of the trade of furs and agricultural goods in return for metals and cloth goods focused in the North Eastern Woodlands and Great Lakes area.Hickerson 1972, p. 21 The development led to the increased specialization of each tribe as the trade in furs for goods became increasingly beneficial for tribes. Consequences of the fur trade led to the depletion of beavers and exploitation of resources in the area. The exploration of Native American fur and labor from European trading companies began extensively in the time period between 1600s-1700s.Hickerson 1972, p. 25 (pg 25)
The development of the fur trade led to the establishment of firm social and political boundaries between tribes as well as the establishment of coalitions and confederacies between tribes. Popular confederations that came into existence in the 1630s are the Iroquois nation, the Pontiacs of 1760, and the coalition of Algonqian tribes which traded with the French in the great lakes region. These organizations developed purely as the product of the fur trade.Hickerson 1972, p. 27
Trade with English settlers
As English settlers came to the New World trade took upon the role of peacekeeping and necessity for the English settlers. In order to have a functional and healthy relationship with the Native Americans in the United States at that time, the English would trade certain goods; such as food, spices, weapons, tools, etc. to the Indians in return to access to fertile lands, use of waterways, and even rough maps depicting the layout of the land. When trade was happening with the early settlers the overall relationship between the English Colonists and Native Americans was very healthy. The Indians could have been savage and harmful to the English, but they understood the trade relationship as a way to better both parties and British colonization of the Americas was more successful because of this. Major challenges occurred due to occasional exploitation of Native American goods by settlers. This led to a steady deterioration of commercial trust between Native tribes and settlers.
Plymouth and Northern Settlers Plymouth (historically known as Plimouth and Plimoth) is a town in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, United States. Plymouth holds a place of great prominence in American history and is typically the most well known of the Northern Settlements. Plymouth was the site of the colony founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, passengers of the famous ship the Mayflower. Before the arrival of the Mayflower earlier explorations killed between 90 and 95% of the local native inhabitants due to disease. The near disappearance of the tribe from the site not only left their cornfields and other cleared areas for the Pilgrims to take over, but also meant that the Indians were in no condition to disrupt the arrival of the colonists. With the dwindling numbers of Native Indians in the area they relied heavily on trade for subsistence and survival. They traded livestock for farming land and farming techniques. The overall relationship was good until the formation of Dominion of New England.
Jamestown and Southern settlers Jamestown and Southern settlers relied very much on the Indians for almost all their food which the Indians gave gladly for the exchange of precious metal. The area where Jamestown was settled, was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginian Indian tribes, who regarded the site as too poor and remote for agriculture. The island was swampy, isolated, offered limited space and was plagued by mosquitoes and polluted tidal river water unsuitable for drinking. Due to this agricultural products, building materials, and minimal livestock was traded from Indians to Jamestown and other southern settlements in close proximity for precious metals, glassware, tools, and other instruments the Indians were unfamiliar with. As other southern settlers left Jamestown and furthered the exploration in the area they were often welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting and tobacco ceremonies. As relationships developed in the southern areas so did the need for healthy trade. The Indians realized that these explorers were not just passing through but looking to colonize and further expand their living areas. After several years of strained coexistence, Chief Opchanacanough and his Powhatan Confederacy attempted to eliminate the English colony once and for all. On the morning of March 22, 1622, they attacked outlying plantations and communities up and down the James River in what became known as the Indian massacre of 1622. The attack killed over 300 settlers, about a third of the English-speaking population.
Trade with English Colonies English colonies became permanent fixtures in the New America, trade became all the more important to keeping civility with the Indians. For most of the Colonies established in the Eastern States as Indians realized their colonies were here to stay, the Englishman were often met with much resistance and even war. Large colonies that were growing quicker everyday were threatening to destroy much of precious land held by the Indians. Also with the increased population came foreign disease which spread quickly among Indian colonies. Trade became tense and limited during these times of sickness and disease. In some Indian history the white man became a hated person. The more successful trade routes between English colonists and Native Americans in the United States were from explorers and mappers, they were seen as less of a threat and would often spend several days inside Indian Territory in order to survive the harshness of the land.
Northern colonies (New England)
Northern Colonies also known as The New England Colonies were made up of the colonies of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Providence Plantations, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. They were part of the Thirteen Colonies. They were mostly associated with the fur trade when there was trading and primary traded with the Pequot Indians, but most relationships were fractured due to disease and land disputes eventually leading to King Phillip's War in 1675. This war was the single greatest war to occur in seventeenth century Puritan New England and is considered to be the deadliest war in the history of New England. King Philip's War began the development of a greater European American identity, which fractured almost all economic activity between English colonists and the Indians in the area.
Southern colonies