Environmental injustice is the exposure of poor and marginalised communities to a disproportionate share of environmental harms such as hazardous waste, when they do not receive benefits from the land uses that create these hazards.Schlosberg, David. (2007) Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature. Oxford University Press. Environmental racism is environmental injustice in a racialised context. These issues may lead to infringement of environmentally related human rights.Steger, Tamara et al. eds. Making the Case for Environmental Justice in Central & Eastern Europe. Budapest: CEU Center for Environmental Policy and Law, The Central European University; The Health and Environment Alliance; and The Coalition for Environmental Justice, March 2007. pp. 1–57. Web. April 10, 2016.
Environmental justice is a social movement to address these issues.
In Europe, environmental racism has been postulated in particular toward Romani communities. According to Trehan and Kocze (2009), "EU accession for the post-socialist countries has resulted in a de facto centre and periphery within Europe itself, thus exacerbating the already marginal economic and political position of Roma in Europe whose communities continue to subsist as internal colonies within Europe." This peripheral position, in which segregated Romani settlements and their inhabitants become viewed as de-territorialized zones "beyond the pale" of government responsibility and European Union citizenship, has been identified by some scholars as an aggravating factor in the prevalence of environmental hazards (such as proximity to industrial facilities and illegal or toxic waste dumps). This practice has been identified in relation to the lack of basic services such as water, housing, sanitation and access to education affecting marginalized Romani communities.
In Central and Eastern Europe, socialist governments have generally prioritized industrial development over environmental protection, in spite of growing public and governmental environmental awareness in the 1960s and 1970s. Even though public concern over the environmental effects of industrial expansion such as mine and dam construction grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s, policy makers continued to focus on privatization and economic development. Following the market transition, environmental issues have persisted, despite some improvements during the early stages of transition. Throughout this time, significant social restructuring took place alongside environmental changes.
Western Europe
Environmental racism is a prevalent issue in all of Western Europe which primarily impacts individuals of minority ethnic backgrounds and racial groups.
Turkey
There are between 500,000 and 2.5 million Romani people in Turkey.Ӧzateşler, Gül. Gypsy Stigma and Exclusion, 1970: The Social Dynamics of Exclusionary Violence. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Print. Most Romani, both itinerant and sedentary, live in Trakya (Thrace) and Marmara regions in the northwest of the country, and generally inhabit settlements that are socio-geographically distinct and isolated from majority populations. Romani in Turkey "suffer much higher levels of ill-health, have poorer housing, and higher incidences of discrimination on the basis of their ethnicity." In at least two cases (the 2010 demolition of Sulukule and the 1970 Bayramiç forest products industry dispute), conflicts surrounding access to land and natural resources has led to the dislocation of entire Romani communities.
Sulukule
In February 2010, the predominantly Romani community of Sulukule in Istanbul, an ancient neighbourhood included on the UNESCO World Heritage list and Istanbul City Wall Preservation Zone, as well as the oldest Romani settlement in Europe was demolished as part of an urban renewal scheme. Earlier demolitions had taken place in the mid-1960s and in 1982 when the old core of Sulukule was torn down.Foggo, Hacer. "The Sulukule Affair: Roma Against Expropriation." Roma Rights Quarterly, number 4, 2007. p. 40–47. Web. Retrieved April 10, 2016. p. 45 As a central area of Istanbul, Sulukule was subject to land speculation, while underlying ecological and environmental issues were potentially exploited as part of the arguments for demolition. According to Aslı Kıyak İngin and Pelin TanThroughout the year 2000, Istanbul witnessed the emergence of large-scale urban transformation projects under the headings of "urban renovation/urban development" which legitimised 'demolishment' and 'reconstruction' via abstract discourses of urban fear, ecology, cultural heritage and natural disasters. In 2005, the Urban Transformation and Renewal policy of 5366 accelerated the urban renovation/developments and it gave power to the municipalities to declare any district as an urban transformation area and to control what property rights, urban planning and architectural projects could be applied.According to architecture scholar Neyran Turan, notions of "urban renewal" as a critical component of ecological sustainability have gained prominence within urban planning discourse in Istanbul.Turan, Neyran. "Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul." Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability. Ed. Sorensen, André; Okata J. Tokyo: Springer, 2011. Print. PDF edition retrieved online, April 10, 2016. Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul: Publications, NEMESTUDIO. In the words of Turan, "the 'ecological turn' of Istanbul is currently limited to specific managerial perspectives on urban governance—such as 'resource management,' 'environmental risk,' or 'urban renewal and transformation.'" A major argument for the demolition and "urban renewal" of Sulukule was to replace existing housing stock with purportedly more earthquake-resistant construction;Bartu, Ayfer and Kolluoğlu, Candan Biray. "Emerging spaces of neoliberalism: A gated town and a public housing project in Istanbul." New Perspectives on Turkey. Volume 39: Fall 2008, pp 5–46. Web. Retrieved June 1, 2016. however, the impetus behind the demolition was allegedly influenced by stigma towards its predominantly Romani inhabitants. Some critics have claimed that Renewal Policy 5366 is often selectively applied toward neighbourhoods with large minority or Romani populations. In a June 17, 2008 interview, Mustafa Ciftci, Sulukule Renewal Project Coordinator, stated
It is not easy to integrate these [Romani] people to society, but we have to accomplish it, in the end these are our people; we have to save them. If it was up to me, as a state policy, I would take all the kids under the age of ten from their parents, put them in boarding schools, educate them and make them members of society. This is the only way.Karaman, Ozan. "Remaking Space for Globalization: Dispossession through Urban Renewal in Istanbul." Diss. University of Minnesota, 2010. University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy. Web. Retrieved June 1, 2016. p. 106Evicted tenants were offered houses 48 kilometres away in Taşoluk, where high mortgage rates were unworkable for most residents, most of whom were low-income. According to Kıyak and Tan, "The renewal process as a whole has caused the disintegration of the community by dispersing the existing social fabric, their inability to continue their cultural activities, their severance from social networks of solidarity, and even graver livelihood problems." Without access to nearby medical care, education, or transportation to the city centre, the relocated residents left Taşoluk.Demirovski, Martin & Marsh, Adrian. "To Start Roma Integration, Stop Roma Evictions". Open Society Foundations, July 10, 2012. n. pag. Web. Retrieved April 10, 2016. Many returned to the former Sulukule district, currently renamed "Karagümrük", where they subsequently constructed shanties "on the ruins of their former homes", according to Demirovski and Marsh.
1970 Bayramiç forestry dispute
According to Rahmi Ozel, the former attorney of Bayramiç, a series of violent attacks against the Romani community there took place between January 18 and February 22, 1970. Part of a larger conflict surrounding access to forest resources, the attacks were triggered by a dispute over ownership of a logging truck. While no one was killed in the attacks, the events caused significant terror among both Romani and non-Romani members of the community, and led to the expulsion of the Bayramiç Romani. Social and behavioral sciences scholar Gül Ӧzateşler has argued that the attacks, whose timing closely correlated to important dates in the logging industry season reflected insecurities about ethnic Turkish loss of power to Romani persons, who were gaining socioeconomic influence due to their role in the transportation sector of the forestry industry.
In the 1960s, forestry became an increasingly profitable industry in Turkey, as lumber consumption rapidly increased. Due to increased investment in forestry management and production, Turkey became recognized for its timber industry, to the extent that its supplies were viewed as competitive within a globalized international context. In 1963–1964, new mountain roads near Bayramiç were created to enable timber extraction, coupled with improvements in highway networks. On August 26, 1967, The Regional Administration of Forestry in Bayramiç city and the surrounding Bayramiç district was founded. At the time, 53.8% of provincial territory was covered by timber stands. As a result of these developments, employment in the forestry transportation sector increased from 30 individuals to 200 in Bayramiç during this time.
In Bayramiç, conflicts over the processing, handling, and transport of timber were commonplace among locals. According to Ӧzateşler, "The competition was especially acute, as at that time forestry offered the best jobs for many villagers and townspeople. It is no coincidence that the attacks on the Gypsies started in January and stopped at the end of February, before the annual start date of the forestry business in the town, in the month of March."
Few cars existed in the Bayramiç region during the 1950s and 1960s; for example, there were only five jeeps in the town during the late 1950s, and animals were used as primary means for transportation. During the late 1950s, timber was the primary economic product exported from the town, and by 1960, there were eight logging trucks stationed in the city. Romani people became involved in logging truck driving beginning in the late 1950s. According to Ӧzateşler, Romani people "became powerful in a prestigious position" by becoming logging truck drivers. According to one truck driver from the era, the driving profession was viewed as having higher prestige than a state official. Ӧzateşler states "it was not easy to find a good driver; experienced drivers therefore had a very strong bargaining position, including a high social status. They were said to be more prestigious even than their own bosses. They were treated as kings in the coffeehouses. When they came in, people would stand up and greet them." However, the reason for the success of Romani truck drivers was their willingness to work an extremely dangerous job. In the words of Ӧzateşler, "They were just doing the dirty job at that time; as it was very tiring and dangerous due to lack of proper roads to the mountain ... one was supposed to be a little mad to be a driver as the risks were considerable."