Failures of water supply and sanitation systems describe situations where water supply and sanitation systems (also called WASH systems) have been put in place (for example by the government or by non-government organizations (NGOs) but have failed to meet the expected outcomes. Low resource settings are scattered with the artifacts of WASH projects - include tanks, taps, toilets and pipes - from the period when WASH was predominantly considered a problem of infrastructure, engineering and technology. These failures not only represent a massive loss of investment of donor and community members' resources, their creation persists, with non-functionality of water systems remaining at 30%–40%.
This level of failure represents a total investment of between USD 1.2 and USD 1.5 billion in the last 20 years (as of 2010).
These failures often due to poor planning, lack of choice of appropriate technology depending upon the context, insufficient stakeholder involvement at the various stages of the project, and/or lack of maintenance. Some argue they are due in part to a lack of accountability for these failures.
While Hygiene Behavior Change is important in achieving the health benefits of improved WASH systems, the achievement of sustainability of WASH infrastructure depends on the creation of demand for sanitation services.
National government mapping and monitoring efforts as well as post-project monitoring by NGOs or researchers, have identified the failure of water supply systems (also known as water points, wells, boreholes, or similar) and sanitation systems (one part of sanitation systems are the toilets). The following sections provide examples of those failures sorted by country.
Improved Sources Don't Guarantee Water Quality A review of 319 studies reporting on the quality of 96,737 water samples found that overall, the chance of contamination were considerably lower for "improved" sources than "unimproved" sources. However, in 38% of 191 studies, over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination. In particular, samples from protected dug wells often contained fecal contamination. The researchers also found that water sources in low-income countries and rural areas were more likely to be contaminated. These researchers concluded that access to an "improved source" does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination. "International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access."
For example, a national sampling of drinking water points in Ethiopia found that 28% were not in compliance with the WHO guideline value for fecal contamination nor the Ethiopian drinking-water standard ES 261:2001. Non-compliance ranged from 57% for protected springs to 12% for utility piped supplies. In 135 Ugandan households, 86% of initially clean water samples contained E. coli after 24 hours of storage in jerrycans.
Monitoring
Some national and local governments monitor water services regularly. One example is the Sistema de Información de Agua y Saneamiento Rural (Rural Water and Sanitation Information System) a monitoring system in Honduras and Nicaragua.
For organizations that work on WASH interventions, monitoring means using indicators to measure effectiveness of a development program. Some organizations or research organizations do "post-implementation monitoring", which occurs after the WASH intervention has been completed.
The Water Point Data Exchange (WPDx), launched in 2015, is a global platform for sharing water point data collected by governments, non-profit organizations, researchers, and others.
Failures of water supply systems
Afghanistan 36% of 24,504 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2013-2014. During a WaterAid-IRC-RWSN webinar in 2011, Leendert Vijselaar of DACAAR said that 35% of 30,182 water points surveyed were non-functional. Nationally, 45% of water supply systems in public schools need extensive repair or replacement (2010).
Africa / Sub-Saharan Africa A 2013 survey of 23 European Community-funded projects in six sub-Saharan countries found: Overall, equipment was installed as planned and was in working order. However, fewer than half of the projects examined delivered results meeting the beneficiaries' needs. While the projects examined were sustainable in technical terms, for a majority of projects, results and benefits will not continue to flow in the medium and long term unless non-tariff revenue is ensured; or because of institutional weaknesses (weak capacity by operators to run the equipment installed). The PlayPump, which was endorsed by celebrities and US First Lady Laura Bush and former US President Bill Clinton, fell out of favor. Many were uninstalled. Critiques included that it was too expensive, too hard to maintain, and used child labor. A UNICEF report called the organization's work technology-driven and recommended meaningful community engagement and transparency on the use of funds. RWSN (Rural Water Supply Network) estimated in 2010 that only two out of three handpumps are working at any time. Figures collated by the RWSN in 2007 indicate an average rate of 36% non-functionality for hand pumps across 21 countries. This level of failure represents a total investment of between $1.2 and $1.5 billion in the last 20 years. Almost 40% of sub-Saharan handpumps are not working in 2005. Sutton (2004) compiled data on non-functionality for several countries.
Angola
25% of 4,389 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2015
Bangladesh 9% of 1,656,695 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2017. Among 972,865 existing water options for arsenic mitigation, 29% are not active (2009).
Belarus
14.5% of rural water supply systems do not meet microbial quality standards and 30.1% do not meet chemical standards (2011).
Benin
12% of 13,003 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2016
Bolivia In over 100 communities visited in the rural municipality of Tiraque, fewer than ten had no water system, 17 were functioning per Bolivia government norms, and the rest were providing sub-par services, requiring anywhere from complete rehabilitations to minor repairs to ensure water of adequate quantity, quality, and continuity was being provided to all citizens (2007).
Burkina Faso
11% of 52,596 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2017
Burundi
58% of 229 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2012
Cambodia In 2014 SNV Cambodia found these results after surveying 1008 water points in Chum Kiri District: 12.1% of 672 tubewells were not functional, 5.8% of 13 protected dug wells were not functional, 262 unprotected dug wells, and 1.1% of 94 community ponds were not functional. 7% of 136,722 handpumps were found to be non-functional.
Cameroon
32% of 6,899 handpumps were found to be non-functional from 2011-2015
Central African Republic 25% of 3,177 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2003 Only 10% of the wells and boreholes provide safe water despite these being the main source of water for urban dwellers (2011).
Chad
16% of 3,267 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2000
Congo
50% of 159 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2008
Côte d'Ivoire
30% of 22,807 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2016Eau Potable en Cote d'Ivore: Le Sous-Secteur de L'Hydraulique Rurale
Croatia 70% customers of 443 small water supply systems receive water that is not in compliance with the respective quality standards (2008).
Czech Republic Water quality data from approximately 1700 small public groundwater well supplies and 3300 private wells from the period 1991–1998 showed there was a non-compliance rate with health-related parameters of approximately 70%.
Dominican Republic A 2011 sustainability assessment of 61 rural water systems found that 18% are unlikely to be sustainable (it is unlikely the community will be able to overcome significant challenges).
DR Congo Out of 2,051 water points in three provinces – Bas Congo, Equateur and Kinshasa – non-functionality was highest in Bas Congo at 68%, 24% in Kinshasa and 14% in Equateur. In Bas Congo only 39% of functional water points provided safe drinking water while in Kinshasa it was just 32% (2012). 25% of 2,214 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2011
Ecuador A sustainability study conducted by the Secretariat for Water in 2004 found that 13% of the systems were sustainable, 29% had mild problems, 20% had severe problems, and 38% were broken down.
England & Wales An analysis of data collected from 150 local water authorities covering approximately 35,000 microbial water quality results for approximately 11,200 private water supply sites from 1996 to 2003 showed that E. coli (an indicator of fecal contamination) was detected in 19% of samples, with at least one positive sample being detected at 32% of water supply sites (compared to 0.1% of samples from mains water supplies).
Eritrea
43% of 864 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2006
Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) 28% of 801 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2013-2015. A 2012 pilot water point mapping effort in 8 Tinkhundlas (sub-districts) beginning Nov 2010 showed that out of 2,689 water points, 58.6% are functional, 11.5% are partially functional, and 29.9% are non-functional. 22.9% (national) and 27.9% (Lubombo region, the study area) of the water schemes were non-functional (2005).
Ethiopia 33% of 4,620 handpumps were found to be non-functional from 2011-2014 A 2013 survey from the 57 diverse water schemes showed 38.6% were non-functional on the day of the visit. A 2012 survey was carried out with 160 household in 16 water supply systems constructed by different organizations. In Mecha Woreda, 20 of the 21 systems (95%) installed without community support were not functioning while only 12 of the 142 systems (8%) installed with community failed. 25.5% of more than 93,000 water schemes across the country were non-functional according to the National Water Inventory (2011). Of 91 water schemes in Farta and West Estie surveyed, 17.5% were not functioning and 10% were functioning with difficulties (2011). Non-functionality of rural water schemes in 10 regions ranges from 18% to 35%, with a national average of 20% (2010). Out of the 70 water supply schemes in Mirab Abaya Woreda, 30 (43%) were non-functional (2008). It has been estimated that 33% of rural water supply schemes are non-functional at any time (2007). 60% of the Somali region's birkado (cement-lined underground cisterns) are damaged and unused, calling into question the building of new birkado versus rehabilitating existing structures (2007). A 2006 survey found that 29% of handpumps and 33% of mechanized boreholes in rural areas were not functioning because of maintenance problems.
Gabon
47% of 1,158 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2012
Germany In Baden-Württemberg, 523 samples from approximately 13,500 private wells were analyzed in 2007; non-compliance rates for E. coli (an indicator of fecal contamination) and total coliforms were at 18% and 43%, respectively.
Ghana 26% of 20,365 handpumps were found to be non-functional in 2014 Of 898 wells surveyed, 20% were not operational at the time of a University of North Carolina study in 2014. Ampadu-Boakye and Hebert stated in 2014: "The Atebubu Water System, in the Brong Ahafo Region, served a group of eight urban communities with a total population of 32,000. The system was completely non-functional at the time of our visit—sand filters were overgrown with weeds, standpipes had been shut down, and the chlorinator appeared run down." Because of the failure, "Many residents now obtain water from boreholes installed by the district assembly or by NGOs....However, at the time of our visit some 40% were broken."