Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. As of 2015, 26 plant species had been genetically modified and approved for commercial release in at least one country. The majority of these species contained genes that made them either tolerant to herbicides or resistant to insects. Other common traits include virus resistance, delayed ripening, modified flower colour or altered composition. In 2014, 28 countries grew GM crops, and 39 countries imported but did not grow them.

Background

Regulations regarding the commercialisation of genetically modified crops are mostly conducted by individual countries. For cultivation, environmental approval determines whether a crop can be legally grown. Separate approval is generally required to use GM crops in food for human consumption or as animal feed.

GM crops were first planted commercially on a large scale in 1996, in the US, China, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. Some countries have approved but not actually cultivated GM crops, due to public uncertainty or further government restrictions, while at the same time, they may import GM foods for consumption. For example, Japan is a leading GM food importer, and permits but has not grown GM food crops. The European Union regulates import of GM foods, while individual member states determine cultivation. In the US, separate regulatory agencies handle approval for cultivation (USDA, EPA) and for human consumption (FDA).

Two genetically modified crops have been approved for food use in some countries, but have not obtained approval for cultivation. A GM Melon engineered for delayed senescence was approved in 1999 and a herbicide tolerant GM wheat was approved in 2004.

Genetically modified crops cultivated in 2014

In 2014, 181.5 million hectares of genetically modified crops were planted in 28 countries. Half of all GM crops planted were genetically modified soybeans, either for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. Eleven countries grew modified soybean, with the US, Brazil and Argentina accounting for 90% of the total hectarage. Of the 111 hectares of soybean grown worldwide in 2014, 82% was genetically modified in some way. Seventeen countries grew a total of 55.2 million hectares of genetically modified maize and fifteen grew 23.9 hectares of genetically modified cotton. Nine million hectares of genetically modified canola was grown with 8 million of those in Canada. Other GM crops grown in 2014 include alfalfa (862,000 ha), sugar beet (494,000 ha) and papaya (7,475 ha). In Bangladesh, a genetically modified eggplant was grown commercially for the first time on 12 ha.

The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. In 2014, 154 million hectares were planted with a herbicide resistant crop and 78.8 million hectares had insect resistant. This include 51.4 million hectares planted in thirteen countries that contained both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. Less than one million hectares contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence, modifying flower colour and altering the plants composition. Drought tolerant maize was planted for just the second year in the USA on 275,000 hectares.

Herbicide tolerance

Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties. They comprised 83% of the total GM crop area, equating to just under 8% of the arable land worldwide. Approval has been granted to grow crops engineered to be resistant to the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, dicamba, glufosinate glyphosate, sulfonylurea, oxynil mesotrione and isoxaflutole Most herbicide resistant GM crops have been engineered for glyphosate tolerance, in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant.

GMOUse Countries approved in First approved NotesAlfalfaAnimal feed USA 2005Approval withdrawn in 2007 and then re-approved in 2011CanolaCooking oil

Margarine

Emulsifiers in packaged foods Australia 2003 Canada 1995 USA 1995 CottonFiberCottonseed oilAnimal feed Except in India, where Cottonseed oil used for human consumption Argentina 2001 Australia 2002 Brazil 2008 Colombia 2004 Costa Rica 2008 India 2002 Mexico 2000 Paraguay 2013 South Africa 2000 USA 1994MaizeAnimal feed high-fructose corn syrup

corn starch Argentina 1998 Brazil 2007 Canada 1996 Colombia 2007 Cuba 2011 European Union 1998 Grown in Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania Honduras 2001 Paraguay 2012 Philippines 2002 South Africa 2002 USA 1995 Uruguay 2003SoybeanAnimal feed Soybean oilArgentina1996Bolivia2005Brazil1998Canada1995Chile2007Costa Rica2001Mexico1996Paraguay2004South Africa2001USA1993Uruguay1996Sugar BeetFoodCanada2001USA1998Commercialised 2007, production blocked 2010, resumed 2011.

Insect resistance Most currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium. Most are in the form of delta endotoxin genes known as cry proteins, while a few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins. Insect resistant crops target various species of coleopteran (beetles) and lepidopteran (moths). The only gene commercially used to provide insect protection that does not originate from B. thuringiensis is the Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). CpTI was first approved for use in cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing trials in rice.

GMOUse Countries approved in First approved NotesCottonFiberCottonseed oilAnimal feed Argentina 1998 Australia 2003 Brazil 2005Burkina Faso2009 China 1997 Colombia 2003 Costa Rica 2008 India 2002Largest producer of Bt cotton Mexico 1996 Myanmar 2006No official public documentation available Pakistan 2010 Paraguay 2007 South Africa 1997 Sudan 2012 USA 1995 EggplantFood Bangladesh 201312 ha planted on 120 farms in 2014MaizeAnimal feed high-fructose corn syrup

corn starchArgentina1998Brazil2005Columbia2003Mexico1996Centre of origin for maizeParaguay2007Philippines2002South Africa1997Uruguay2003USA1995PoplarTreeChina1998543 ha of bt poplar planted in 2014

Stacked traits Many varieties of GM crops contain more than one resistance gene. This could be in the form of multiple insect resistant genes, multiple herbicide tolerance genes or a combination of the herbicide and insect resistant genes. Smartstax is a brand of GM maize that has eight different genes added to it, making it resistant to two types of herbicides and toxic to six different species of insects.

Other modified traits While most crops are engineered to resist insects or tolerate herbicides some crops have been developed for other traits. Flowers have been engineered to display colours that they cannot do so naturally (in particular the blue color in roses). A few crops, like the genetically modified papaya, are engineered to resist viruses. Other modifications alter the plants composition, with the aim of making it more nutritious, longer lasting or more industrially useful. Recently, crops engineered to tolerate drought have been commercialised.

GMOUse Trait Countries approved in First approved Notes CanolaCooking oil

Margarine

Emulsifiers in packaged foods High laurate canola Canada 1996 USA 1994 Phytase production USA 1998CarnationOrnamentalDelayed senescenceAustralia1995Norway1998 Modified flower colour Australia 1995 Colombia 2000In 2014 4 ha were grown in greenhouses for export European Union 1998Two events expired 2008, another approved 2007 Japan 2004 Malaysia 2012For ornamental purposes Norway 1997MaizeAnimal feed high-fructose corn syrup

corn starch Increased lysine Canada 2006 USA 2006Drought toleranceCanada2010USA2011PapayaFoodVirus resistanceChina2006USA1996Mostly grown in HawaiiPetuniaOrnamentalModified flower colour1998PotatoFoodVirus resistanceCanada1999USA1997IndustrialModified starchUSA2014RoseOrnamentalModified flower colour Australia2009Surrendered renewalColombia2010No public documentsGreenhouse cultivation for export only.Japan2008USA2011SoybeanAnimal feed Soybean oilIncreased oleic acid productionArgentina2015Canada2000USA1997Stearidonic acid productionCanada2011USA2011SquashFoodVirus resistanceUSA1994Sugar CaneFoodDrought toleranceIndonesia2013Environmental certificate onlyTobaccoCigarettesNicotine reductionUSA2002

Genetically modified crops that are no longer cultivated

GMOUse Trait Countries approved in First approved NotesPotatoFoodInsect resistanceCanada1995Withdrawn from market 2001USA1994IndustrialModified starchEuropean Union2010Development stopped 2012RiceFoodInsect resistanceIran2004Grown on 4000 ha in 2005TobaccoCigarettesHerbicide resistanceChina1992Not grown since 1995 due to strong opposition from tobacco importers.TomatoFoodDelayed softeningUSA1992Production stopped 1997 First GM food (see Flavr Savr)

Approved genetically modified crops that have not yet been cultivated

GMOUse Trait Countries approved in First approved Notes AppleFood Delayed browning Canada 2015 USA 2015 Bean Viral disease resistance Brazil 2011 ChicoryAnimal feed Herbicide tolerance USA 1997 EucalyptusTree Altered growth Brazil 2015FlaxLinseed OilHerbicide tolerance USA 1999Canada gained approval in 1996, but it was rescinded in 2001 GrassOrnamental Turfgrass Herbicide tolerance USA 2003 Rescinded approval in 2017 due to seed contamination in OregonPlumFoodVirus resistanceUSA2007PotatoFoodReduced acrylamide Blackspot bruise tolerance

Late blight resistanceUSA2015Virus resistanceCanada1999USA1997IndustrialModified starchUSA2014Sweet pepperFoodVirus resistanceChina1998

Genetically modified crops by country

CountryGM foodHa grown in 2014 ArgentinaCotton530 000Maize3 000 000Soybean20 800 000AustraliaCanola342 000CarnationCotton200 000 BangladeshEggplant12BrazilCotton600 000Maize12 500 000Soybean29 100 000 BoliviaSoybean1 000 000 Burkina FasoCotton454,124 CanadaCanola8 000 000Maize1 400 000Soybean2 200 000Sugar beet15 000ChileCanola2 000Maize7 000Soybean1 000ChinaCotton3 900 000Papaya8 475Poplar543Sweet pepperTomato ColombiaCotton18 000Maize81 000 Costa RicaCotton36.3Soybean1.7 CubaMaize3 000Czech RepublicMaize1,754 HondurasMaize29 000 IndiaCotton11 600 000MexicoCotton160 000Soybean10 000 MyanmarCotton318,000 PakistanCotton2 850 000ParaguayCotton36 000Maize500 000Soybean3 300 000 PhilippinesMaize831 000PortugalMaize8 542 RomaniaMaize771SlovakiaMaize441 South AfricaCotton9 000Maize2 150 000Soybean552 000SpainMaize131,538 SudanCotton90 000United States of AmericaAlfalfa862 000Canola685 000Cotton4 500 000Maize34 500 000Papaya1 000PotatoSoybean32 300 000Squash1 000Sugar beet479 000 UruguayMaize90 000Soybean1 550 000

See also AquAdvantage salmon

References and notes

Notes

References