Wadi el-Hudi is a mining region that includes a large wadi and a mountain named Gebel el-Hudi in the Egyptian Eastern Desert, Southeast of Aswan. The name hudi is thought to come from the Arabic word for guide. Wadi el-Hudi is geologically rich and has been the basis of considerable mining and study since Ancient times. While it was initially known for the ancient amethyst quarries, this area is important the study of Egyptian archaeology and history because of its high number of rock inscriptions, stele, settlements, and mines, mainly dating to the Middle Kingdom. This area is fairly large, about 100 square kilometers.
Geology This region was the primary source of amethyst in Ancient Egypt. This region's geology is quite diverse and rare due to the meeting of Precambrian basement of metamorphic gneiss with the younger Cretaceous Nubian sandstone. Based on the compositions of the country rock, quartz, amethyst, and gold are abundantly found here. Other minerals have been found, such as amazonite, copper, carnelian, talc, barite, and galena. Diorite hammerstones of natural, local origin are found everywhere in this region.
History There is evidence of human activity from the Paleolithic, Nagada II/ Predynastic, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, Ptolemaic, Persian, and Islamic eras. Travelers most likely used the region throughout every era, and in modern times. Rock art from pastoral nomads may have begun as early as the predynastic era, as the region was used by multiple groups of travelers. Organized, state- sponsored campaigns to mine amethyst began in the 11th dynasty under the reign of Mentuhotep IV. Later, these expeditions were expanded by the 12th dynasty king, Senwosret I. Inscriptions range through the Middle Kingdom, until the reign of Sobekhotep IV.
Egyptian administrative officials still knew of this region during the New Kingdom. During the Persian period, small groups of miners worked at Site 11 and left graffiti on WH143. Later in the Ptolemaic period, large expeditions returned to mine amethyst at Site 4. During the 9th-10c. CE, large groups mined gold at Sites 3 and 13. Currently, the Eastern Desert as a region is being exploited for resources by both legal and illegal mining groups.
Sites As of 2023, 58 sites have been found, but more are being found every year.
Settlements with mines
1 Site 1 is several long, thin mine shafts and huts that is located northeast of the main wadi. Site 1 has evidence of mining activity from multiple periods, including the Middle Kingdom, as well as lots of evidence for Paleolithic stone tools. A stele (WH 14) was found here, dating to the 12th Dynasty.
2 Site 2 contains a fortified settlement, possibly dating to the Ptolemaic period, found just northeast of Gebel el-Hudi. This site also has considerable Paleolithic evidence as well.
This site is currently being turned into a 3-D model.
3 Site 3 is a small gold mine with work areas and several huts, west of Gebel el-Hudi. This site was used in the Islamic Period. There is small scale, but sustained gold mining that spanned multiple years.
4 Site 4 is an amethyst mine and the remains of a fortified settlement that was built during the Middle Kingdom and renovated during the Ptolemaic period. In the Middle Kingdom, Site 4 was a third large settlement to be built by the Egyptian government at Wadi el-Hudi. This area was frequently used during Middle Kingdom by state-sponsored mining expeditions. Stele found at this Site relate to the social history, religious history, and administration of the mines. The structures are similar in design to Lower Nubian fortresses. Some amethyst veins are still visible in the mine, but most are faded or milky from the sun exposure. This Site is more remote than others in the area, being protected on all sides by the terrain.
Site 4 also hosts the only New Kingdom artifact found so far, a stele from the reign of Amenhotep II, known as the Usersatet Stele.
During the Ptolemaic period, large expeditions reopened the mine. At this point, the settlements were renovated, reusing Middle Kingdom stele and buildings.
Site 4 is currently being turned into a 3-D model.
5 and 36 Site 5 is a large amethyst mine and settlement built onto the terrain of a hill. Site 5 features a large, winding set of natural paths and stairs that walk through communal areas into private, administrative areas. This Site was the first settlement to be built by the Egyptian government during the reign of Mentuhotep IV. The geography of this Site allows people to see into the surrounding wadi, or valley. Around the boulders at Site 5 there are more than 100 rock carvings. Rock inscriptions at this site were used to communicate with soldiers and workers, and commemorate the mission.
According to inscription WH 6, Middle Kingdom mining expeditions of over 1500 people frequently used this Site. Both Site 5 and Site 9 demonstrate that Nubians were a significant part of the workforce. The construction of this Site is similar to Wadi es-Sebua. Paleolithic stone tools have been found at Site 5.
Site 36 consists of around 20 piles of stacked stones directly adjacent to the Site 5 settlement, and was probably created by the same people. Excavations of these piles of stones have shown that they are just cairns, with no evidence of burials.
Sites 5 and 36 are currently being turned into a 3-D model.
7 and 45 Sites 7 and 45 are parts of an ancient road that goes between Wadi el-Hudi and Aswan.
9 and 15 Site 9 is a large amethyst mine and rectangular Middle Kingdom settlement built in the sandy wadi bed. Site 15 is a rock nearby where stele were erected. Site 9 and the nearby Site 15 were built second, likely during the reign of Senusret I. Site 9's structure was built in at least two phases. It is made up of a storage area, administrative area, work areas, and open courts. This structure has architecture similar to other Middle Kingdom, such as Buhen and Mirgissa. However, the construction of the walls is similar to Nubian architecture, such as that found at Wadi es-Sebua. The walls of the Site are between 1 and 2 meters high, which was the original building height. The structure has small windows along exterior walls. The large, open pit mine butts up against the eastern walls of the structure. Multiple heaps of rocks have been found nearby, most likely used in the mining process.
Mining in this area began during the reign of Senusret I, and continued through the 13th dynasty. This area, and others, were frequently used during Middle Kingdom mining expeditions of over 1500 people. This site was built by Nubian workers following Egyptian building plans. Because of the distance of from the Nile, local rocks were used instead of mudbrick.
Both Site 5 and Site 9 demonstrate that Nubians were a significant part of the workforce.
This site is currently being turned into a 3-D model.
11 and 12 Site 11 and Site 12 were used during the Persian era. Site 11 is a hilltop settlement. Site 12 is the mine further down the hill.
13 and 14 Site 14 is an ancient and modern gold mine. Site 13 is a settlement where the ore was processed. These Sites are a mile long mine that was most actively used in the 9th and 10th century. These sites were initially used during the Persian Period, but continued to be used through the Ottoman Era and through today. These Sites also has considerable Paleolithic evidence as well.
21 Site 21 is a small amethyst mine with 13 related huts or windbreaks nearby. This Site has a rocky outcropping at the bottom of a small valley, with no shade and rocky paths. Unlike other Sites, this was not connected to mining activity run by the Egyptian State. Some areas were used for cooking, processing amethyst, storing food, and managing refuse. Desert Nubians likely mined amethyst here, based on the pottery remains found at feature 11, a hut and amethyst processing area. Site 21 was mined at approximately the same time as the Egyptian state was pursuing large-scale mining nearby.
22 Site 22 includes a hut, some natural stone features, and a small mine that was used to look for veins of amethyst, but never yielded great spoils.
Prospect mines
8, 19, 25, 26 These Sites are small mines that were either prospections or abandoned after not yielding much. Because they were used for a short time, most of these mines have very little evidence for the people that created them.
20 Site 20 is a small prospect mine. It was possibly started in the Roman period, as dated by the pottery remains.
54 This prospect mine includes some pottery fragments that are likely handmade Nubian.
Other sites
6 and 27 Site 6 and Site 27 are rocky hilltop areas used for surveillance. They were part of a surveillance network that oversaw the larger landscape. Site 6 contains more than 60 inscriptions of soldiers, their titles, and their dogs and was the central point of the surveillance network. Several hundred years prior to the soldiers inscribing these rocks, pastoral nomads first drew images of themselves and their animals, including cows on this pinnacle.
Site 6 is currently being turned into a 3-D model.
Site 27 is a small node in this surveillance network, made up of a small hut and one inscription of a soldier.
42, 43, 52 These Sites may contain small burials. Some burials are of single individuals; most likely travelers who did not survive their trek. Burials of multiple individuals close together may indicate a pastoral nomadic family burial area that was reused when needed. These most likely date to the Nagada II/ A-Group period and include mixed pottery traditions.
51 Site 51 is a natural rock shelter used as a short term living space. This Site is about a day's walk from the Nile, and may have held water from an occasional rain event. It was described by a traveler, Hansjoachaim Van der Esch, in 1938, but had been used for millennia before. Pottery from this area indicates it was used by Nubian pastoral nomads and travelers from many eras. Based on pottery remains, the Site was used heavily in the Roman and Islamic periods.
Some people used this Site for just a night or for temporary shelter, while others most likely lived here for longer amounts of time. Tally marks in the walls indicate several multi-week stays. Some inscriptions are of local animals, and some are figural, while others are text. An inscription on a rock overhang reads: "Hotepi discovered this place". This dates to the possibly the Old Kingdom or First Intermediate Period.
There are dozens of grinding stones and slicks here that indicate pastoral nomads sheltered here and processed plants they have gathered.
Inscriptions The inscriptions at Wadi el-Hudi cover a range of thousands of years, including predynastic rock art, Middle Kingdom inscriptions, Persian graffiti, Ptolemaic ostraca, and Arabic graffiti. 40 stele were brought from the Sites to be housed in the Aswan museum and Egyptian museum in the 1930s and 1940s. Currently, the Wadi el-Hudi Expedition has found over 300 inscriptions, and 155 had been previously published by Ahmed Fakhry and Ashraf Sadek.
WH 4 This inscription on a boulder at Site 5 describes the work that was done there during the first mining season in the Middle Kingdom. Line 14 states "what was gotten as amethyst: 150 hekat", which is about 680 liters, or enough to fill a pantry. This inscription also discusses Nubian workers at Wadi el-Hudi. WH 4 dates to the 11th Dynasty, during the first year of the reign of Mentuhotep IV.
WH 6 This stela notes that over 1500 people from all over Egypt were working at Wadi el-Hudi during the reign of Senwoseret I. The accounting includes 1000 laborers, 300 soldiers, administrators and mining specialists. This is probably an accounting of all the people and supply lines that supported the expedition.
WH 22 and WH 23