( ) is an ancient Greek concept of hospitality. It is almost always translated as 'guest-friendship' or 'ritualized friendship'. It is an institutionalized relationship rooted in generosity, gift exchange, and reciprocity. Historically, hospitality towards foreigners and guests was understood as a moral obligation, as well as a political imperative. Hospitality towards foreigners honored Zeus (and Athene ), patrons of foreigners.
The rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host expressed in both material benefits (e.g., gifts, protection, shelter) as well as non-material ones (e.g., favors, certain normative rights). The word is derived from .
Overview consists of two basic rules: The respect from hosts to guests. Hosts must be hospitable to guests and provide them with a bath, food, drink, gifts, and safe escort to their next destination. It is considered rude to ask guests questions, or even to ask who they are, before they have finished the meal provided to them. The respect from guests to hosts. Guests must be courteous to their hosts and not be a threat or burden. Guests are expected to provide stories and news from the outside world. Most importantly, guests are expected to reciprocate if their hosts ever call upon them in their homes.Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. [catalogues the various expectations of hosts and guests in early Greek society.]
was considered to be particularly important due to the belief that gods mingled among the people; if one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. Notable among them is the Greek god Zeus, who is sometimes called Zeus in his role as a protector of strangers. This normalized theoxeny or , wherein human beings demonstrate their virtue by extending hospitality to a humble stranger (), who turns out to be a disguised deity ().
These stories caution mortals that any guest should be treated as if potentially a disguised divinity, due to both a deity's capacity to instill punishment or grant reward for their behavior, who highly valued generosity and welcoming attitudes towards strangers. A parallel caution occurs in the New Testament Book of Hebrews, which admonishes Christians, "Be not forgetful to entertain strangers: for thereby some have entertained angels unawares."
The term also covered entertaining and hosting among the gods themselves, a popular subject in classical art, which was revived at the Renaissance in works depicting a Feast of the Gods. Deities were looked up to as symbols of virtue, and they were often depicted as performing amongst themselves, reinforcing the established idea of as a fundamental Greek custom.Louden, Bruce. 2011. Homer's Odyssey and the Near East Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–2.Weaver, John B. 2004. Plots of Epiphany: Prison-Escape in Acts of the Apostles. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 34. While these practices of guest-friendship are centered on the gods, they would become common among the Greeks in incorporating into their customs and manners. Indeed, would become a standard practice throughout all of Greece as a custom in the affairs of humans interacting with humans as well as humans interacting with the gods, which was culturally reinforced through understandings of gods interacting with gods as well.
In politics
Platonic philosophy
Plato describes four types of xenoi or strangers in need of hosting, in his work Laws:
"The first and inevitable immigrant is the one who chooses summer, as a rule, for his annual visits, in the fashion of migratory birds— and, like birds, the most of these cross the sea, just as if they had wings, for the sake of making gain by their trading, and fly over to foreign cities during the summer season; this stranger must be received, when he comes to the city, at the markets, harbors, and public buildings outside the city, by the officials in charge thereof; and they shall have a care lest any such strangers introduce any innovation, and they shall duly dispense justice to them, and shall hold such intercourse as is necessary with them, but to the least extent possible." "The second type of stranger is he who is an inspector, in the literal sense, with his eyes, and with his ears also of all that appertains to musical exhibitions: for all such there must be lodgings provided at the temples, to afford them friendly accommodation, and the priests and temple-keepers must show them care and attention, until they have sojourned for a reasonable length of time and have seen and heard all that they intended; after which, if no harm has been done or suffered by them, they shall be dismissed. And for these the priests shall act as judges, in case anyone injures one of them or one of them injures anyone else, if the claim does not exceed fifty drachmae; but if any greater claim is made, the trial for such strangers must take place before the market-stewards." "The third type which requires a public reception is he who comes from another country on some public business: he must be received by none but the generals, hipparchs and taxiarchs, and the care of a stranger of this kind must be entirely in the hands of the official with whom he lodges, in conjunction with the prytaneis." "The fourth type of stranger comes rarely, if ever: should there, however, come at any time from another country an inspector similar to those we send abroad, he shall come on these conditions:—First, he shall be not less than fifty years old; and secondly, his purpose in coming must be to view some noble object which is superior in beauty to anything to be found in other States, or else to display to another State something of that description. Every visitor of this kind shall go as an unbidden guest to the doors of the rich and wise, he being both rich and wise himself; and he shall go also to the abode of the General Superintendent of Education, believing himself to be a proper guest for such a host, or to the house of one of those who have won a prize for virtue; and when he has communed with some of these, by the giving and receiving of information, he shall take his departure, with suitable gifts and distinctions bestowed on him as a friend by friends."
Plato makes a list of such xenoi in an effort to promote legal responsibility to uphold the domain of Zeus Xenios. Plato likewise makes mention of Zeus Xenios while discussing his journey to meet Dion of Syracuse in The Seventh Letter, and mentions the importance of his domain.
Historical role in diplomacy
Historian Gabriel Herman lays out the use of in political alliances in the Near East. He analyzes the exchange of between King Xerxes and Pythios the Lydian, wherein Xerxes is made into Pythios's xenos. This exchange allowed for more peaceful political relations between both figures, and established a tone of generosity and brotherhood between the two. This type of exchange was also known to have been done through messengers, without the principals meeting face-to-face.
Herman connects the phenomena of to several historical cultural exchange customs throughout Afro-Eurasia. He connects to studies of African tribal societies studied by Harry Tegnaeus, and certain traditional notions of African tribal brotherhood. Separately, he connects as the predecessor to vassal and lord dynamics in later medieval times.
Herman goes on to analyze instances of in political and social relations:"...No less important an element in forging the alliance was the exchange of highly specialized category of gifts, designated in our sources as (as distinct from , the term of the relationship itself) or . It was as important to give such gifts as to receive, and refusal to reciprocate as tantamount to a declaration of hostility. Mutual acceptance of the gifts, on the other hand, was a clear mark of the beginning of friendship." To reinforce this, Herman notes out several instances of usage in literature. He points to the account of Odysseus giving Iphitos a sword and spear after having been given a formidable bow while saying they were "the first token of loving guest-friendship". Herman also shows that Herodotus holds "the conclusion of an alliance and the exchange of gifts appeared as two inseparable acts: Polykrates, having seized the government in Samos, "concluded a pact of with Amasis king of Egypt, sending and receiving from him gifts ()". Within the ritual it was important that the return gift be offered immediately after receiving a gift with each commensurate rather than attempting to surpass each other in value. The initial gifts in such an exchange would fall somewhere between being symbolic but useless, and of high use-value but without any special symbolic significance. The initial gifts would serve as both object and symbol. Herman points out that these goods were not viewed as trade or barter, "for the exchange was not an end in itself, but a means to another end." While trade ends with the exchange, the ritual exchange "was meant to symbolize the establishment of obligations which, ideally, would last for ever."
In architecture as a custom appears to have been a critical factor that helped determine layouts of homes and of common areas. In the classical work De Architectura, the Roman architect Vitruvius comments on how was expressed in ancient Greek home layout and decoration. In particular, he emphasizes the decorative paintings of food in guest apartments of Greek homes:
When the Greeks became more luxurious, and their circumstances more opulent, they began to provide dining rooms, chambers, and storerooms of provisions for their guests from abroad, and on the first day they would invite them to dinner, sending them on the next chickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and other country produce. This is why artists called pictures representing the things which were sent to guests ."The focus on creating distinct space to house strangers is shown to be a movement connected to both piety and opulence, due to how the housing of guests was seen as a virtue.
Displays of wealth in decoration and in parting gifts for guests likewise serve as both a status symbol and as a demonstration of .
Architectural theorist Simon Weir explained how Vitruvius refers to at the beginning of Book 6 of De Architectura, in the anecdote of Aristippus shipwrecked and receiving hospitality from the Rhodians. He explained how Vitruvius' understanding of extended beyond the home, and involved general welcoming exchanges between strangers. Prior to Vitruvius, still appears pervasive in the work of the earliest ancient Greek architects, whose work was always concerned with public buildings and the hosting of guests rather than the design of private residences. In particular, architectural historian, Lisa Landrum has also revealed the presence of in Greek theatre onstage and offstage.
In Greek literature
As a part of how was culturally reinforced, demonstrations of and were present through major works of Greek literature.
In the Iliad
The Trojan War described in the Iliad of Homer resulted from a violation of . Paris, from the house of Priam of Troy, was a guest of Menelaus, king of Mycenaean Sparta, but seriously transgressed the bounds of by abducting his host's wife, Helen. Therefore, the Achaeans were required by duty to Zeus to avenge this transgression, which, as a violation of , was an insult to Zeus's authority.