The Nabataean religion was a form of Arab polytheism practiced in Nabataea, an ancient Arab nation that was well established by the third century BCE and lasted until the Roman annexation in 106 CE.Patrich, Joseph. The Formation of Nabataean Art: Prohibition of a Graven Image Among the Nabateans. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1990. Print. The Nabateans were polytheistic, worshiping a wide variety of local gods, as well as deities such as Baalshamin, Isis, and Greco-Roman gods, including Tyche and Dionysus. They conducted their worship at temples, high places, and betyls. Their religious practices were mostly aniconic, favoring geometric designs to adorn sacred spaces. Much knowledge of Nabataean grave goods has been lost due to extensive looting throughout history. The Nabataeans performed sacrifices, conducted various rituals, and held a belief in an afterlife.

Gods and goddesses

Most of the deities in the Nabataean religion belonged to the pre-Islamic Arab pantheon, with the inclusion of foreign deities such as Isis and Atargatis.

Dushara, a Nabataean deity whose name means "Lord of the Mountain," was widely worshipped in Petra. He was venerated as the supreme god by the Nabataeans and was often referred to as "Dushara and all the gods."Healey, John F. The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 2001. Dushara was regarded as the protector of the Nabataean royal house. However, following the fall of the royal house to the Romans, the religion declined, and its primary deity lost prominence. During this period, Dushara became associated with other gods, including Dionysus, Zeus, and Helios.

Manāt, known as the goddess of fate, was worshipped by those seeking rain and victory over their enemies.

Al-Lāt, referred to as "the great goddess who is in Iram," was widely known in Northern Arabia and Syria. She was associated with the goddess Athena in the Hawran. Al-Lāt was venerated in Palmyra, but her temple shows no evidence of blood rituals being performed there. It is believed that she and Al-Uzza were once a single deity, which bifurcated in the pre-Islamic Meccan tradition. Pre-Islamic Arabs believed that the goddess Al-Lāt, along with Al-‘Uzzá and Manāt, was the daughter of Allah, although Nabataean inscriptions describe her as Allah's wife instead. These same inscriptions also refer to both Al-Lāt and Al-‘Uzzá as the "bride of Dushara."

In Arabic, Al-'Uzza's name is believed to mean "the mightiest one." She was venerated in the city of Petra, with her cult primarily centered in the Quraysh and the Hurad Valley, north of Mecca. The goddess was associated with a type of betyl characterized by star-like eyes and was linked to the Greco-Roman goddess Aphrodite. Pre-Islamic Arabs regarded her as one of the daughters of Allah, alongside Al-Lāt and Manāt.

Al-Kutbay was one of the lesser-known deities of the Nabataeans, believed to have had a temple in Gaia and to have been venerated in Iram. There is some ambiguity regarding the deity's gender. In Gaia, Al-Kutbay was considered female, while in Qusrawet, Egypt, the deity was believed to be masculine and referred to as Kutba. However, most evidence suggests that Al-Kutbay was female, as betyls associated with her are similar in design to those of Al-‘Uzzā.

Baalshamin was a Syrian deity who became a Nabataean god following the expansion of Nabataea into southern Syria. His name, meaning "Lord of Heaven," associates him with the sky. Baalshamin is believed to have originated from the storm god Hadad, who was worshipped in Syria and Mesopotamia. As a sky deity, he is often identified with the Greek god Zeus. A temple dedicated to Baalshamin is located at Si, which appears to have been a center for pilgrimage.

Qos, an ancient Edomite deity, was worshipped at Tannur. He was associated with Apollo and lightning.

Hubal was worshipped in the Ka'bah at Mecca. His followers were said to have sought his guidance on matters of lineage, marriage, and death. In his honor, a sacrifice was offered, followed by the casting of seven divination arrows. The answer to their query was determined by the carved words inscribed on the sides of the arrows.

Manotu was a goddess mentioned in tomb inscriptions at Hegra. Her name appeared alongside that of Dushara, serving as a warning of their curse. She is believed to be the same as the goddess Manāt of the Ka'bah in Mecca, who was considered one of the daughters of Allah.

Isis was a foreign deity to the Nabataeans, originating from Egypt and sometimes symbolized by a throne. Depictions of the goddess can be seen at Petra’s Khazneh and the Temple of the Winged Lions.

Atargatis was a foreign deity whose original cult center was at Hierapolis. She was also venerated at Khirbet et-Tannur. Atargatis was alternately referred to as the goddess of grain and fish.Alpass, Peter. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, Leiden, NLD:Brill, 2013 She is sometimes depicted seated between two lions and is also associated with a betyl featuring star-like eyes.

Shay’-al-Qawn was regarded as the protector of caravans, soldiers, and other travelers. It is said that his followers disapproved of the consumption of wine.

Obodas is believed to have been a deified Nabataean king, though it remains unclear whether he was Obodas I, II, or III. His association with the royal family suggests that he was venerated through a private cult.

Tyche, a Nabataean goddess, is often depicted alongside the zodiac signs found at Khirbet-et-Tannur. She is typically shown with wings, a mural crown, and holding horns of plenty.Glueck, Nelson. The Zodiac of Khirbet et-Tannûr. Boston, MA : American Schools of Oriental Research,1952

External influences on gods/goddesses

The majority of Nabataean gods were foreign and were adopted from other cultures. Many Nabataean deities became associated with Greco-Roman gods and goddesses, particularly during the period when Nabataea was under Roman influence. For instance, the Egyptian goddess Isis appeared not only in Nabataean religion but also in Greek and Roman traditions. The god Dushara is often mentioned as a version of Dionysius. The gods Helios and Eros are also found in Nabataean temples. Following the annexation of Nabataea by the Romans, some tombs referred to Greco-Roman gods rather than Nabataean deities, marking a shift in religious practices. For example, in the temple of Qasr, Aphrodite (identified with al-‘Uzza) and Dushara were worshipped.

Relationships between the gods

The relationships between Nabataean gods are not always clear due to the lack of evidence supporting various claims. In some regions of the kingdom, gods and goddesses are paired as husband and wife, while in other areas, they may not be. For example, the god Dushara is sometimes said to be the husband of Al-Lat, while in other instances, he is described as her son. Similarly, Al-Lat, Al-‘Uzza, and Manāt are often referred to as the daughters of the high god Allah. In some regions of the Nabataean kingdom, both Al-Lat and Al-‘Uzza are considered to be the same goddess.

Rituals and animals

It is likely that in the city of Petra, there were processional ways connecting temples, such as the Qasr el-Bint temple, the Temple of the Winged Lions, and the Great Temple. The main street running through the city would have facilitated such processions. Other processional routes may have been linked to the so-called high places, such as el-Madh-bah, passing landmarks like the "Roman Soldier" tomb, the "Garden Temple," the Lion Monument, and a rock-cut altar before reaching the high place. The Nabataeans would visit the tombs of relatives for ritual feasting, filling the space with incense and perfumed oils. It is also likely that goods were left inside the tombs as a way of remembering the deceased. Remains of unusual species, such as raptors, goats, rams, and dogs, were used in some rituals.Rawashdeh, Saeb. Ancient Nabataean rituals uncovered and explored at IFPO workshop. Jordan Times:23 Sept. 2015 Sacrificing camels to the ancient gods, especially to Dushara, was also not uncommon.

Sacred objects or animals

Niches – These are described as miniature temples or adyton of a temple, containing stone pillars or betyls carved out of rock. Altars – At times, the Nabataeans used altars as representations of the gods. Sacred animals – Eagles, serpents, sphinxes, griffins, and other mythological figures decorate the tombs of the ancient Nabataeans. Iconoclasm – There is little evidence of Nabataean iconoclasm. Most deities were portrayed as betyls, sometimes carved in relief, and other times carried during processions. When gods were depicted in human form, they were often represented as "eye-idol" betyls. Due to Greco-Roman influence, statues of Nabataean gods exist. For instance, the goddess Isis is shown in human form, possibly because she was venerated in regions like Egypt and Rome. The god Dushara is depicted in both betyl and statue form throughout the Nabataean kingdom.

Places of worship

The Nabataeans had numerous places for religious practice and cult worship, known as "high places." These shrines, temples, and altars were typically open-air structures situated atop nearby mountains. These locations throughout the Nabataean kingdom were dedicated to the worship of the same gods, although the methods of worship varied from site to site. Offerings ranged from material goods and food to live animal sacrifices, and possibly even human sacrifices. The Nabataean kingdom can be divided into five religious regions, each containing sites of religious significance: the Negev and Hejaz, the Hauran, Central Jordan, Southern Jordan, and Northwestern Saudi Arabia.Peterson, Stephanie. "The Cult of Dushara and the Roman Annexation of Nabataea." Ma Thesis, McMaster, August, 2006. The religious sites in these regions are in varying states of preservation, making it difficult to determine which deities were worshipped at specific shrines, altars, and temples. As a result, the specifics of the cult practices are unclear, and only educated speculations can be made.Anderson, Bjo. Constructing Nabataea: Identity, Ideology, and Connectivity. Classical Art & Archaeology, The University of Michigan, 2005 Committee: M.C. Root (co-chair), T. Gagos (co-chair), S. Alcock, S. Herbert, N. Yoffee.Wenning, R. 1987. Die Nabatäer-Denkmäler und Geschichte:Eine Bestandesaufnahme des archäologischen Befundes, Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz.

The Negev and Hejaz

Sobata

Located about 40 km southwest of Beersheba, is the city of Sobata was one of the major cities within the Nabataean kingdom. Very few archaeological remains of any form of Nabataean cult worship, including temples, shrines, or altars, have been found. However, a small amount of evidence has been discovered indicating the worship of Dushara.Tholbecq L. (2007) “Nabataean Monumental Architecture.” In: Politis KD (ed) The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans: An International Conference at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001, 1033-144. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Avdat

Located in the mountains southeast of Sobata, religious practice in this area primarily focused on the deified Obodas I, who gained fame for reclaiming lands in the Negev from Alexander Jannaeus, leading to the formation of a "King’s cult." At least two documented Nabataean temple complexes exist atop the acropolis, with the smaller of the two dedicated to the deified Obodas III.

Rawwafah Located 300 km from Petra, a single temple in the Nabataean style has been discovered. The inscription on the lintel dates the temple to after the fall of the Nabataean kingdom.

Mampsis

Mampsis is a Nabataean site located about 81 km from Petra. It was an important stop on the incense trade route. Nabataean-style buildings, caravanserais, and water systems have been discovered at the site.

The Hauran

Bostra